As the spring advances, the following come on with surprising rapidity. Madder⁠[157], cleavers⁠[158], periwinkle⁠[159], plantain⁠[160], androsace⁠[161], burnet⁠[162], speedwell of many species⁠[163], wake robin⁠[164] several species, dragons⁠[165], several kinds of toad flax⁠[166], clary⁠[167], sow bread⁠[168], which near Aleppo is chiefly cultivated in their little gardens, but very common on the mountains; various sorts of clarey⁠[169], three species of charlock⁠[170], Mithridate mustard⁠[171], bastard Mithridate mustard⁠[172], stock-gellyflower⁠[173], dames violet⁠[174] four species, wild radish⁠[175], two species of chickweed⁠[176], four kinds of mouse-ear⁠[177], house-leek⁠[178], caltrops⁠[179], two species of anemony⁠[180], parsley⁠[181], petty madder⁠[182], hartwort⁠[183], shepherds needle⁠[184], clove-gellyflower⁠[185], various species of garlick⁠[186], bindweed two kinds⁠[187], spurges several species⁠[188], horehound⁠[189], field Basil⁠[190], treacle-mustard⁠[191], woad⁠[192], hemlock⁠[193], water parsnip⁠[194], navel-wort⁠[195], brank ursine⁠[196], gold of pleasure⁠[197], flix-weed⁠[198], horned wild cumin⁠[199], sweet fern⁠[200], bastard parsley⁠[201], shrub hartwort⁠[202], scorching carrot⁠[203].

And towards the middle of April the country is in its full bloom, the verdure of the fields being beautifully variegated by poppies⁠[204], bellflower⁠[205], gromel⁠[206], comfrey⁠[207], mullein⁠[208], sage⁠[209], rocket⁠[210], hedge-mustard⁠[211], mustard⁠[212], horned poppy⁠[213], great variety of campions⁠[214], pimpernel⁠[215], figwort⁠[216], berry bearing chickweed⁠[217], flax⁠[218], corn-flag⁠[219], lilly daffodil⁠[220], larkspur⁠[221], bugloss⁠[222], ladies bed-straw⁠[223], birthwort⁠[224], ironwort⁠[225], skull-cap⁠[226], trifoil⁠[227], melilot⁠[228], calves snout⁠[229], Moldavian balm⁠[230], medick⁠[231], rest harrow⁠[232], goats rue⁠[233], bastard rocket⁠[234], kidney vetch⁠[235], corn sallet⁠[236], two species of satyrion⁠[237], knapweed⁠[238], hatchet vetch⁠[239], columbine⁠[240], scabious⁠[241]. Nor are the stoney, uncultivated rising grounds without their plants; as thyme⁠[242], vipers buglos⁠[243], ground pine⁠[244], cress⁠[245], common whitlow grass⁠[246], madwort⁠[247], eryngo⁠[248], St. Foin several species⁠[249], birds foot⁠[250], horse-shoe vetch⁠[251], birds foot trefoil⁠[252], moon trefoil⁠[253], vetch several kinds⁠[254], milk vetch⁠[255], betony⁠[256], knapweed⁠[257].

Among the rank herbage in the gardens are found at this season, borage⁠[258], German madwort⁠[259], hounds tongue⁠[260], broom rape⁠[261], mint⁠[262], rush⁠[263], balm⁠[264], thyme⁠[265], vervain⁠[266], dittander⁠[267], hollyhock⁠[268], cinquefoil⁠[269], lilly⁠[270], burdock⁠[271], but in small quantity; mug-wort⁠[272]. But among the plants that adorn the fields at this season, no one is more conspicuous or common than the lion-leaf⁠[273]: nor should we here omit a beautiful species of henbane⁠[274], with a strong musk smell; which seems to be the hyosciamus rubello flore, C. B. P. 169. though the peculiarity of its smell I do not find has been mentioned.

As the heats come on, the few following plants being of a hardier nature, are the only ones that are capable of resisting them. Wild or Syrian rue⁠[275], bean capers⁠[276], capers⁠[277], which grow in plenty on the tops of old houses; kings spear⁠[278] several species; a variety of stars of Bethlem⁠[279], liquorice⁠[280], night-shade⁠[281], fennel⁠[282], blessed thistle⁠[283], wild cucumber⁠[284]. Nothing now remains of the spring-plants in the open fields.

Of the plants that belong to the summer, except the following, al hagy⁠[285], a very low kind of acacia⁠[286], goats thorn⁠[287], kali⁠[288], several species of thistles⁠[289], and the gundelia⁠[290], the greatest part are to be found under the shade, or nigh the little channels where the water runs in the gardens. Molucca balm⁠[291], base horehound⁠[292], bastard horehound⁠[293], dwarf oleander⁠[294], ricinoides⁠[295], thorn apple⁠[296], turnsole⁠[297], leadwort⁠[298], pimpernel⁠[299], teasel⁠[300]. After the first rains in the autumn, the fields every where throw out the autumnal lilly daffodil; and the few plants which had stood the summer now glow with fresh vigour.

Besides what plants have been already enumerated, the country produces the camomile-like ox-eye⁠[301], sneezwort⁠[302], yarrow⁠[303], cats foot⁠[304], fleabane⁠[305], several sorts of grass⁠[306], ragweed⁠[307], stinking orach⁠[308], wild orach⁠[309], vipers grass⁠[310], ox-eye⁠[311], May weed⁠[312], corn marigold⁠[313], goats beard⁠[314], Achilles’s yarrow⁠[315], American night-shade⁠[316], chickling⁠[317], chickling vetch⁠[318], French honeysuckle⁠[319], fever-few⁠[320], chamomile⁠[321], hemp⁠[322], sharp-pointed dock⁠[323], bloodwort⁠[324], pellitory of the wall⁠[325], true maiden-hair⁠[326], nettle⁠[327], starry hawkweed succory⁠[328], groundsell⁠[329]. The weeping willow⁠[330] should likewise have been mentioned before, which is very common in the gardens.

And the river affords plenty of the yellow water-lilly⁠[331], from whence the natives distil a cordial-water much used by them.

I never travelled through Syria, either with a botanical view, or at the proper season; so that I cannot pretend to give any tolerable account of the plants growing at any distance from Aleppo. The few, however, that came to my knowledge, I shall just mention. On the mountains grow several sorts of oaks, pines, myrtle, juniper, bay, St. John’s bread, kermes, azarole, the fruit of which is brought to market in the autumn; and the andrachne in such plenty, that it affords nigh one half of the wood used for fuel in Aleppo. The shining red of its bark, together with the beauty of its flowers and fruit, will, I doubt not, make it esteemed as a valuable acquisition to the British gardens, if it agree with our climate, which the thriving condition of several plants raised here seems to promise. The bindweed⁠[332], from whence the Aleppo scammony of the shops is procured, does not grow near the city, but chiefly on the mountains. This drug is the inspissated milky juice that flows from the root by incision; and each produces but a very small quantity. As the plant grows wild, it is the property of any one that will take the trouble to look for it, which is the employment of some peasants at the proper season; and having collected what they can of the milky liquor, they carry it to the nearest village of any note, where there are always some traders (chiefly Jews) ready to purchase it of them; and these people generally mix it with wheat flour, sand, ashes, &c. so that at present very little is brought quite pure to market at Aleppo. It does not appear that any thing it is adulterated with increases its violence in operating; on the contrary, the purer the scammony, the smaller I have always found the dose: so that the notion of its being mixed with the juice of the spurge seems without foundation. However, the proportion of the heterogeneous substances mixed with it being various, renders the dose of the medicine as found in the shops very uncertain, and so occasions its being seldomer prescribed than so safe and efficacious a purgative otherwise deserves. For further particulars relating to this plant, see Medical Observations and Inquiries, Vol. I.—At the bottom of the page is a catalogue of such other plants as have come within my observation on the mountains, and in other parts of Syria⁠[333].

There are no metals found any where near Aleppo, or, so far as I know of, in all Syria; though some of the rocky hills from their appearance seem to contain an iron ore. Nigh to Antioch a few garnets are picked up, but of an inferior quality.

The soil has been already mentioned. They have scarce any clay; and, what they do meet with, has so little tenacity, that it is with difficulty they can form a very ordinary sort of bricks; which, as well as the water-jars they make of it, frequently fall to pieces of themselves. The potters clay, of which the holes of their pipes are made, is brought from Damascus and Sidon.

About six hours from Aleppo is found a sort of fullers earth, called by the natives bayloon, which is often used in the bagnio instead of soap, and particularly by the women for cleansing their hair; for which purpose it is kept in balls, made up with rose-leaves, to give it an agreeable smell. I may add, that a good deal of it is ate by longing women, and such as have a depraved appetite from a chlorosis.

For common buildings they make use of a white gritty stone, every where plenty about the town; and is very proper for the purpose, as it is easily cut, and grows hard afterwards. For the gateways, pillars, and pavements of their best buildings, they employ a yellow marble, which is capable of a tolerable polish, and is likewise the produce of this country. This is often intermixed with a red, white, and coarse black marble in their buildings, by way of ornament. None of the three last mentioned are found in the neighbourhood of Aleppo; being brought, the first from Damascus; the second, either from Italy, or extracted from old buildings, chiefly about Antioch; and the last, both from Damascus and Killis. When they are in want of the red, they can dye the yellow marble of Aleppo, so as to have much the same appearance, by rubbing it over with oil, and then putting it into a moderately-hot oven for some hours. The slight partition-walls are built of a coarse sort of chalk, of which there is abundance to the northward of the city.

Lime-stone is met with in plenty near the city, affording them good cement for their buildings; which they carry on with great ease and dexterity, and generally without any scaffolding. A few hours distance is found the gypsum in small quantities, of which their plaister of Paris is made. This is chiefly used in cementing the earthen pipes employed in carrying water, and for a few other purposes about their best buildings.

About eighteen miles south-east from Aleppo, is a large plain, which we generally call the Valley of Salt, bounded with low, rocky hills, so as to form a kind of natural bason, which keep in the rains descending from them, together with the water derived from a few springs in the neighbourhood, and cause the whole to be entirely covered with water in the winter. The extent and evenness of the surface, however, prevents this water from collecting to any great depth; so that it is soon evaporated by the summer’s heat, and leaves a cake of salt in some places not less than half an inch thick, but it is more or less in proportion to the quantity of rain that falls in the winter; and with this crust the whole inclosed plain is covered. The soil of this plain is a stiff clay, and strongly impregnated with salt; but I could not discover that the springs above mentioned had any taste communicated by this mineral.

In the month of August a number of people are employed in gathering this salt; which is of a good quality, and in quantity proves sufficient to supply all this part of the country.

What few black cattle they have near the city, are chiefly used for the plough, or drawing water for the gardens. The greatest part of those employed for this purpose are very large, with remarkably long legs, and a gaunt belly, such as we often see on antique intaglios. The other cattle of this species are small, and all in general have very short horns.

The Turks or Jews scarce ever eat beef, and it is but of late that the Christians have begun to be fond of it; so that what is killed is chiefly for the Europeans, who have it tolerably good at all seasons, but best in summer, as the natives to this day religiously observe the ancient custom of allowing the oxen employed in separating the corn from the straw to eat what they please.

In some parts of Syria there are abundance of buffaloes, but near Aleppo very few, and these chiefly kept for milk. Mutton is plentiful, fat, and good the whole year, except a few weeks in the spring, and makes by far the greater part of the animal food of all ranks of people. Lamb is also to be had in every season, but in greatest plenty in February, March, and April.

They have two sorts of sheep in the neighbourhood of Aleppo: the one called Beduin sheep, which differ in no respect from the larger kinds of sheep in Britain, except that their tails are somewhat longer and thicker: the others are those often mentioned by travellers on account of their extraordinary tails; and this species is by much the most numerous. This tail is very broad and large, terminating in a small appendix that turns back upon it. It is of a substance between fat and marrow; and is not eaten separately, but mixed with the lean meat in many of their dishes, and also often used instead of butter. A common sheep of this sort, without the head, feet, skin, and entrails, weighs about twelve or fourteen Aleppo rotoloes⁠[334], of which the tail is usually three rotoloes or upwards; but such as are of the largest breed, and have been fattened, will sometimes weigh above thirty rotoloes, and the tails of these ten; a thing to some scarce credible. These very large sheep being about Aleppo kept up in yards, are in no danger of injuring their tails; but in some other places, where they feed in the fields, the shepherds are obliged to fix a piece of thin board to the under part of the tail, to prevent its being torn by bushes, thistles, &c. as it is not covered underneath with thick wool like the upper part; and some have small wheels, to facilitate the dragging of this board after them; whence, with a little exaggeration, the story of having carts to carry their tails.

This thin skin on the under part of the tail is much used by the natives for pains and swellings of all sorts, being applied warm to the part affected, and allowed to remain on till it stinks abominably; and as they are very often applied to the head and abdomen in fevers, this last circumstance makes them prove generally detrimental: and indeed I have seldom, if ever, seen much benefit received by their application, except in some old rheumatic pains.

They have also two kinds of goats; one that differs little from the common sort in Britain; the other as remarkable for the length of its ears, as the sheep above mentioned for the largeness of their tails. The size of the animal is somewhat larger than ours; but their ears are often a foot long, and broad in proportion. They are chiefly kept for their milk, of which they yield no inconsiderable quantity; and it is sweet, and well-tasted. Great numbers of them are brought to the city about the beginning of April, and are drove through the streets every morning, and their milk sold as they pass, till September. The other part of the year they are generally supplied with cows milk, such as it is; for as they are commonly kept at the gardens, and fed with their refuse, the milk generally tastes so strong of garlick or cabbage leaves, as to be very disagreeable. Besides the milk of the goats, their kids add some part to the diet of the inhabitants, a few being killed in the spring and autumn.

Butter and cheese, both of which are bad, are made indiscriminately of the milk from cows, buffaloes, sheep, or goats: and the city is supplied with these things, as well as with cattle of all kinds, by the Arabs, Rushwans, or Turkmen; all of whom place their wealth, or at least derive their subsistence from those animals, and travel about the country with their flocks, much in the same way as the patriarchs did of old.

Leban⁠[335] is brought in great plenty to the city during the winter and spring, and is a favourite dish with the inhabitants.

The country round Aleppo abounds with antelopes; which are of two sorts: that which is called the mountain antelope is the most beautiful; its back and neck are of a dark brown colour: the antelope of the plain is not either so swift or well-made, and is of a much lighter colour. Both sorts afford no small diversion to the sportsmen; but are so extremely fleet, that the greyhounds, though very good, can seldom take them without the assistance of a falcon, unless in soft deep ground. In the sporting season they are lean, but have a good flavour. In the summer, when fat, they may vie even with our venison in England. But this is to be understood of such as are caught abroad, for those that have been fattened in the houses are not so delicious. From this account it will easily be conceived, that such dainties only make their appearance at the tables of the Europeans, and a few of the more considerable Turks.

Hares are in great plenty, and also afford good sport; but the natives are not fond of them, except the Arabs, whose method of dressing them is particular, and said to be very good. They dig a hole in the earth, which they fill with such light brushwood as they can pick up, and set it on fire: when thoroughly lighted, the hare, the flue, the entrails, and all together just as it was taken, is thrown into it; and, after the flame has ceased, they cover the hole up with the loose earth that had been dug out of it, and which at first had been laid round the verge of the fire, so as to grow hot: thus it is left till they judge it to be sufficiently roasted, when throwing a quantity of salt over it, they eat it without any further dressing.

A few tame rabbits are kept in the city, chiefly for the tables of the Europeans; and now and then a wild hog is brought from abroad, which, though seldom fat, yet is esteemed by us, as it is a rarity.

The country also affords a few porcupines, which are sometimes, though seldom, ate by the Europeans; and land-turtle and frogs in great abundance, which furnish a dish for the Franks of the Romish religion, and for many of the native Christians, in their lents.

These are the animals which are commonly dressed for food by the inhabitants of Aleppo; for the camel, though reckoned a delicious morsel by the Arabs, makes no part of their diet. This creature, however, is of the utmost consequence to them in transporting from place to place every thing for which they have occasion; there being no such thing as a wheel-carriage in all this part of the country, except a very clumsy machine, now and then used for bringing large pillars, or other stones of great weight, from the quarry.

There are four sorts of camels known here, viz. the Turkman camel, the Arab camel, the dromedary, and the camel with two bunches on its back.

The Turkman camel is much stronger, larger, more woolly or hairy, and of a darker colour, than any of the others. Their common load is 160 rotoloes, or 800 pounds; but sometimes it carries much more. This animal cannot bear heat, and therefore they never work it in the months of June, July, and August.

The Arab camel is much smaller than the former, of a lighter colour, and not so hairy. This seldom carries above 100 rotoloes, but can bear the heat and thirst much better than the Turkman; nor is there any need that the Arab camel be fed with barleyflour and chopp’d straw; for the dry thistles, and other plants which grow on the desart, are almost all it requires, and it feeds as it goes along with its burthen. I remember an instance, where, in a caravan from Bussorah, the camels which were of this sort travelled without water for fifteen days; but the quantity they drank as soon as they could come at any, proved fatal to many of them.

The dromedary, by all I could ever discover, is nothing but a high breed of the Arab camel. The only distinction observed is, that it is of a lighter and handsomer make; and, instead of the solemn walk to which the others are accustomed, it paces, and is generally esteemed to go as far in one day as the others do in three.

The camel with two bunches on its back is of Persian breed, and, except a few that come in the caravans from Bagdad and Bussorah, is but seldom seen here. The only distinction between it and the Arab camel seems to be its having two bunches, whereas the other sorts have but one.

In mentioning their beasts of burthen, the ass ought not to be omitted: of which they have two sorts; one very large, with remarkably long ears; the other small, and much like ours in England; both of no contemptible use in carrying all lighter burdens to and from the parts adjacent to the city.

Formerly this part of the country was famous for fine horses; and though many good ones are still bred here, it may be said they are much degenerated. Those of the Arab breed are slight, and not very handsome, but esteemed for their fleetness. The Turkman horses are larger, of a stronger make, and more sightly appearance; and therefore more valued by the people of fashion among the Turks, whose large furniture does not show to advantage upon a small horse. They are for the most part very well broke, and particularly taught to go off in full speed at once, and stop as quickly; so that in the space of a few yards the rider can lay them out at full stretch, and stop and turn them. Far the greater part are stone-horses, but in general not vicious; and it is observed of most of their animals, that they are exceeding gentle and familiar with the human species.

Among the rocky hills there are hyænas; but they are not so large as those which are found in the mountains⁠[336].

If this animal could formerly imitate the human voice, and learn some of the shepherds names, so as to call them out and devour them, as some writers have reported, it is more than they do at present, being, so far as I can learn, fonder of the flocks than of the shepherd. However, though they will not attack men but in their own defence, or through excess of hunger; yet they still retain the character of robbing sepulchres when they have an opportunity.

Wolves and foxes are found in the champaign, but smaller than those in Europe; and jackalls are in so great plenty about the gardens, that they pass in numbers like a pack of hounds in full cry every evening, giving not only disturbance by their noise, but making free with the poultry and other provisions, if very good care is not taken to keep them out of their reach.

I might be excused from mentioning their dogs, which abound in the streets without any owner, were it not that I think it worth observing, that though they live upon the most putrid substances, have but little water, and in so excessive hot a climate as this is in the summer, yet no instance has been known of any of them running mad. Their wolves however seem to be subject to madness; for the rusticks talk much of an animal called a sheeb, which they imagine to be generated between a wolf and a dog; but, from their description of it, viz. that it is so like a wolf as not to be distinguished from it; that it attacks every person or animal that comes in its way, all of whom die raving mad, &c. I think it would appear that this animal is no other than a mad wolf.

Their greyhounds are of a very light, slender make, and remarkably fleet. Their ears are longer than ours in Britain, and, as well as their tail, covered with a long, soft hair, which adds very much to their beauty.

Though Mount Taurus, near to Maraash, gives shelter to the ounce, and some few tygers are found in most of the high mountains, the lion on the Euphrates between Bagdad and Bussorah, and the jerboa on the desart, and perhaps on examination many other animals in the same places; yet my present purpose only comprehending the parts adjacent to Aleppo, what I have already said on this subject may perhaps be thought sufficient.

As to reptiles, insects, &c. time would not permit me to be minute; so that I shall just mention such as are hurtful or of use to the inhabitants, and a few of those that are most commonly met with. Of the first sort are the serpents of various kinds, with which the country abounds, many of them of the most venomous nature; but as they all fly from man, and the barrenness of the fields in summer, the only season in which they are abroad, prevents either their being surprised, or people’s treading upon them undesignedly, no great number of accidents happen. In the houses there are often found large white snakes; but I never knew any one bit by them. The scolopendra and scorpion however very often sting the natives in their houses, causing pain for several hours, but attended with no farther bad consequences.

Of the noxious kind may well be reckoned the locust, which sometimes arrive in such incredible multitudes, that it would appear fabulous to relate, destroying the whole of the verdure where-ever they pass: but though there are always in the spring and summer some of two or three different species to be met with about Aleppo, yet none of these destructive flights of them appeared during my stay there. It may not be amiss to mention that the Arabs eat this insect when fresh, and also salt them up as a delicacy.

Of insects for use, we have only the bee, which produces excellent honey, and the silk-worm, now sufficiently known all over Europe, as well as the method of managing them in order to procure the silk; of which there is but very little made nigh Aleppo: though that being the market to which it is brought from all parts of Syria, great quantities are sent from thence yearly to Britain.

Various sorts of lizards are found in great abundance over the whole country, and in the gardens a few tree-frogs⁠[337]. It is worth observing, that toads are scarce ever seen here, though common enough upon the coast.

The view with which these sheets were composed, it is hoped, will sufficiently apologize for beginning the account of the feathered tribe with such as are used for food by the inhabitants. Of domestic fowls, they have in their markets, the dunghill cock and hen⁠[338]; the Bagdad fowl which is of a large breed; the rumkin⁠[339], or cock and hen without rumps; the turkey⁠[340], goose⁠[341], and duck⁠[342]. Of game there are on the river in winter, the water hen⁠[343], water rail⁠[344], wild goose⁠[345], plenty of common wild duck and mallard⁠[346], several kinds of widgeon⁠[347], coot⁠[348], spoon-bill⁠[349], and various sorts of teal⁠[350], with which the tables of the Europeans are plentifully supplied, and some ate also by the natives.

In the winter there are also plenty of wood-cocks⁠[351]; spring and autumn produce abundance of quails⁠[352] and rails⁠[353]. In the last mentioned season the witwall⁠[354] and becca figos are both in season, and (the last in particular) esteemed as delicacies.