A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they qualify. The rest follow their word.

a. 頂 ’ting, highest, top.

• 天狼心頂亮 t’íen long sing ’ting liáng‘, Sirius is a very bright star.
• 頂强者 ’ting giáng ’tsé, at the lowest price.
• 伊个人頂明白 í kú‘ niun ’ting ming báh, that man is very intelligent.
• 頂大頂多, ’ting dú‘, ’ting tú, very great, very many.

b. 最 tsûe‘, exceedingly, the most.

• 老虎最利害 ’lau ’hú ’tsûe‘ lí‘ é‘, the tiger is very fierce.
• 窵鳥當中鳳凰最好看 ’tiau ’niau tong tsóng, vóng wong‘ tsûe‘ ’hau k’ön‘, among birds, the phoenix is the most beautiful.
• 天地當中人最玲瓏 t’íen dí‘ tong tsóng, niun tsûe‘ ling lóng, of all things in heaven and earth, man is the most intelligent.

c. 極, kiuh, extremely; this particle is used before or after the adjective which it qualifies.

• 聰明得極 t’sóng ming tuh giuh, extremely intelligent.
• 極深奧 kiuh sun au‘, extremely profound.
• 有文理得極 ’yeu vun ’lí tuh giuh, very beautifully written.
• 斯文得極 sz vun tuh giuh, extremely polite and elegant.

d. 野 ’yá, wild, great; this word requires one of the auxiliary verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.

• 黃浦裡險得野 Wong-p’ú‘ ’lí ’híen tuh ’ya, the Hwang-p’u is very dangerous.
• 天高來野拉 t’íen kau le ’yá ’lá, heaven is very high.

e. 死 ’sí, to die; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between it and its adjective.

• 米行情貴來死 ’mí hong zing kü‘ lé ’sí, the price of rice is very high.
• 年勢好來死 níen sz‘ ’hau lé ’sí, it is a very good year.
• 今朝風大來死 kiun tsau fóng dú‘ lé ’sí, to-day the wind is very high.

f. 嘸做 m tsú‘, there is nothing that can be done; this form of expression also requires 來 lé.

• 風大來嘸做 fóng dú‘ lé m tsú, the wind is very high.
• 日頭旺來嘸做 nyih deu yong‘ lé m tsú‘, the sun is very bright.
• 學問深來嘸做 hoh vun‘ sun lé m tsú‘, his learning is very profound.

g. 煞 sah, very. lit. a twinkling. (Premare has this particle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺 [1] sah, kill).

• 强盜靈多煞 kiáng dau‘ tú sah, the robbers are very many.
• 勿輕煞 veh k’iung sah, not very light.

h. 頭一 teu ih, the first in importance.

• 頭一要緊 teu ih yau‘ ’kiun, the most important.
• 敬父母頭一 kiung‘ ’vú ’mú deu ih, filial piety is most important.

i. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh, remarkably, exceedingly.

• 好來了勿得 ’hau lé ’liau veh tuh, exceedingly good.

j. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.

• 重來了反勿得 ’dzóng lé ’liau fan veh tuh, extremely heavy.

k. 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來 wó‘ veh lé, very, unspeakable. 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly.

• 大來話勿得 tú‘ lé wó‘ veh tuh. unspeakably great.
• 話勿來個苦惱 wó‘ veh lé kú‘ k’ú ’nau, unspeakably wretched.

l. 得利害 tuh lí‘ é‘, severe, dangerous.

• 重得利害 ’dzóng tuh lí‘ é‘, exceedingly heavy.

Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression equivalent to our qualifying adverbs very, extremely, etc. In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may mean best, or very good. It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are therefore true adverbs.

Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative. 1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting, kiuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after its word. 2. The ordinal 頭一 teu ih, in mandarin 第一 tí ih, the first, also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative. 3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野, 極, 利害, ’yá, kiuh and lí‘ é, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做, ’yá, ’sí, and m tsú‘, to the latter, form a third class. 4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fan veh tuh, wonderful, very, 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh (lé), unspeakable, and 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening, also convey a superlative sense.

Obs. iii. The verb 完 wén, finish is also applied to adjectives with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者 wó‘ lé ziáng‘ wén ’tsé, painted extremely like; 容貌黃完 yóng mau‘ wong wén, countenance very sallow.

Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the phrases 十分 seh fun, ten parts and 十二分 seh ni‘ fun, twelve parts; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau, the thing is thoroughly good.

179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a particle.

• 今朝念一 kiun tsau nian‘ ih, to-day is the 21st of the month.
• 咸豐二年 yan fóng ní‘ níen, the 2nd year of Hien-fúng.

Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh san, fifty three; 九 十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘, ninety two. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, 零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘, a hundred and four. Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh san seh, it is more frequent to omit 十 seh. Thus, ih páh san, a hundred and thirty, and so for other numbers. The omission of 一 ih, one, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah, a hundred and eighty; one thousand four hundred is 千四 t’sien sz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 man‘ sz‘.

180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第 tí‘ to the cardinal numbers.

• 正月初一 tsung‘ niöh t’sú ih, the 1st day of the 1st month.
• 明朝初幾 ming tsau t’sú ’kí, what day of the month is to-morrow.
• 後日初一者 ’heu nyih t’sú ih ’tsé, the day after to-morrow is the first.
• 考歇第一百名 ’k’au h’ih tí‘ ih páh ming, he has passed the examination as the one hundredth.
• 第三十本 tí‘ san seh ’pun, the thirtieth volume.
• 是儂第幾個兒子 ’zz nóng‘ tí‘ ’kí kú‘ ní ’tsz? which son are you?
• 排行第幾 pá hong dí‘ ’kí? which are you in order.

Obs. First is translated 頭一 teu ih.

181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍 pé‘, times; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘, make it twice as large; 加長四倍 ká dzáng sz‘ bé‘, make it four times as long.

182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any other auxiliary substantive particles.

• 一个一个 ih ku‘ ih ku‘, one by me or one after another.
• 兩个兩个 ’liáng kú‘ ’liáng kú‘, two and two.
• 一行一行 ih hong ih hong, row by row.
• 一條一條 ih diau ih diau, in successive lengths.

183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síen, 1,000; 萬 man‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.

• 論千論萬 lun t’síen lun man‘, thousands and myriads.
• 萬百樣物事 van‘ pah yáng‘ meh zz‘, all things.
• 論千來者 lun t’síen lé ’tsé, many thousands are come.
• 文武百官 vun ’vú pák kwén, all officers civil and military.
• 會醫百病 wé í páh bing‘, can cure all diseases.
• 百花生日 pák hwó sáng nyih, the flowers’ birth-day.
• 萬國九州 van‘ kóh ’kieu tseu, all countries.

184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.

• 三心兩意 san sing ’liáng í‘, vacillating in opinion.
• 三轉九囘頭 san ’tsen ’kieu wé deu, constantly turning back.
• 七橫八豎 t’sih wáng pah ’zû, lying in all directions.
• 三伸四縮 san sun sz‘ soh, timidly advancing and retreating.
• 瞎七瞎八 hah t’sih hah pah, all in confusion.

Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages, examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g. at sixes and sevens.

185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in their meaning, are here appended.

• 一 ih, one, whole, immediately upon.
• 獨一無二 tóh ih vú rh‘, there is only one.
• 一切說話 ih t’sih seh wó‘, all he said.
• 一統天下 ih ’t’óng t’íen ’au, the whole empire.
• 一言旣出 ih íen kí‘ t’seh, the words have been said.
• 一定不易 ih ding‘ peh yuh, certainly unchangeable.
• 一念囘頭 ih nian‘ wé deu, sincerely repent.
• 一居一動 ih kü ih ’dóng, all he does.
• 一動就打 ih ’dóng dzieu‘ ’táng, at the least thing, he fights.
• 一走就跌 ih ’tseu dzieu‘ tih, the moment he begins to walk, he falls.

186. 全 dzien, complete, all.

• 勿完全 veh wén dzíen, not complete.
• 人全拉上 niun zén ’lá long‘, they are all there.
• 全關着 zén kwan zah, —they are all connected with—

187. 大 tá‘, great, very.

• 國度是大個 kóh dú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, it is a large kingdom.
• 要大呢小 yau‘ dú‘ ní ’siau, will you have it large or small?
• 勿大煞個 veh dú‘ sah kú‘, it is not very large.
• 大人小囝 tú‘ niun ’siau nön, parents and children.
• 大勿喜歡 tú‘ veh ’h’í hwén, much displeased.
• 勿大哩好 veh dá‘ ’lí ’hau, not very good.
• 勿大哩吃個 veh dá‘ ’lí k’iuh kú‘, seldom eat it.

188. 好 ’hau, good, well, that I may, it may.

• 禿是勿好 t’óh ’zz veh ’hau, all are bad.
• 頂勿好 ’ting veh ’hau, worst of all.
• 恰好 hah ’hau, fortunately, just at the time.
• 勿好意思 veh ’hau í‘ sz‘, ashamed.
• 好拉否 ’hau ’lá ’vá, are you well?
• 醫勿否 í veh ’hau, he cannot be cured.
• 勿能好 veh nung ’hau, I cannot recover.
• 好去囘頭 ’hau k’í‘ wé deu, that I may go and inform him.
• 好做個 ’hau tsú‘ kú‘, it may be done.

189. 靈 ling, efficacious, intelligent.

• 勿靈個 veh ling kú‘, powerless, inefficacious.
• 唔沒靈處 m meh ling t’sú‘, having no efficacy.
• 靈性勿拉心裏 ling sing‘ veh ’lá sing ’lí, always forgetting.
• 魂靈勿拉身上 wung ling veh ’lá sun long‘, ib.

190. 快 k’wá‘, fast, (adv.) near, soon, lively.

• 快快搖 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ yau, row quickly.
• 夜快者 yá‘ k’wá‘ ’tsé, it will soon be night.
• 死快者 ’sí k’wá‘ ’tsé, he is dying.
• 快活, 快樂 k’wá‘ weh, or k’wá‘ loh, glad.
• 爽爽快快 ’song ’song k’wá‘ k’wá‘, well in health.

Section 6. On the Pronoun.

191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.

They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own (e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The details will be found below.

Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for this dialect.

1. Personal, 我, 儂, 其, 伊, 㑚, 你, ’ngú, nóng‘, gí, í, ná‘, ’ní, I, thou, he, you.
2. Reflexive, 自 zz‘, in combination.
3. Demonstrative, 第, 伊, 個, tí‘, í, kú‘, this, that; also 彼此 pé ’t’sz, occasionally used.
4. Interrogative, 啥, 幾 sá‘, ’kí, what? how many? inseparable, and 何 hú, what? 那 ’ná (pron. ’á), which? inseparable.
5. Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun, its place being supplied by 個 kú‘, 所 ’sú is inseparable, and very limited in its use.
6. Possessives. None. Their place is supplied by 個 kú‘, following the personal pronoun.
7. Distributives. 各, 每, 逐, koh, ’mé, dzóh, each, every.
8. Reciprocal. None. The borrowed form 大家 is the substitute.
9. Indefinite. 某, 啥, 幾, 多, ’meu, sá‘, ’kí, tá, some, several.
10. Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 禿, 全, 別, t’oh, dzén, bih, all, other, separable and 凡 van, inseparable.

Personal pronouns. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular is ’ngú, 我 I; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í or 其 kí, he.

• 我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, I am now going.
• 呌儂就來 kau‘ nóng‘ dzieu‘ lé, I told you to come at once.
• 撥拉伊者 peh ’lá í ’tsé, I have given it him.
• 其撥拉我 kí peh ’lá ’ngú, he gave me.

In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, express we; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘ ná‘, you; and 伊 í, they.

• 我你兩个 ’ngú ’ní ’liáng kú‘, we two.
• 那多許人 ná‘ tú hau‘ niun, all you men.

When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often filled up by 是 ’zz.

• 是我 ’zz ’ngú, I.
• 是伊是其 ’zz í ’zz gí, he.
• 是那衆人 ’zz ná‘ tsóng‘ niun, all you men.

Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來 seh ké k’ön‘ ’k’í lé, thus you see; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh hau, if you do not come it will be unfortunate.

Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in English it, is not expressed, as 落雨者 loh ’ú ’tsé, it is raining.

Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á, I, thou, he, all form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.

Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third person he, This occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversation. The nominative is then considered as I, and the third person, he. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú veh ’h’í hwén ’ngú, the younger brother knows that the elder is displeased with him. This is not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’ngan tsing sú tsz í kú‘ nén niun, she looked on her husband.

193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.

• 伊自家話 í zz‘ ká wo‘, he himself said.
• 儂自家要去個 nóng‘ zz‘ ká yau‘ k’í‘ kú‘, you must go yourself.

Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.

Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘, self, though not used out of combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘, to kill one’s-self; 自害自 zz‘ hé‘ zz‘, to injure one’s-self, These concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká; 自家害脫自家 zz‘ ká hé‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.

Demonstratives, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個 tí‘ kú‘, this, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘, that.

• 第个事體 tí‘ ku‘ zz‘ ’t’í, this matter.
• 故个物事 kú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘ that thing.
• 伊个小囝 í kú‘ ’siau nön, that boy.
• 伊歇辰光 í h’ih zun kwong, at that time.

Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is omitted.

• 第頭好包 tí‘ deu ’hau pau‘, here it is good walking.
• 故搭去住 kú‘ tah k’í‘ dzû‘, go and live there.
• 伊塊人少 í k’wé‘ niun ’sau, the people there are few.

Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé, that, this, that, though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 彼此 pé ’t’sz, that and this. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as separable and inseparable.

Interrogatives. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘, what? 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? and which? and 幾 ’kí, what? which? also ’kí hó‘ (hau‘), how many.

• 啥人拷門 sá‘ niun k‘au mun, who knocks at the door?
• 啥物事 sá‘ meh zz‘, what is the matter.
• 儂要啥事體 nóng‘ yau‘ sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, what do you want?
• 啥所去 sa‘ sü k’í‘, where are you going?
• 爲啥實盖能 we‘ sá‘ seh ké‘ nung, why do you do so?
• 到那裏去 tau‘ ’á ’lí k’í‘, where are you going.
• 那裏堂 ’á ’lí dong, where?
• 那裏个戶堂 ’á ’lí kú‘ ú dong, which place?
• 那裏个人 ’á ’lí kú‘ niun, which man?
• 那裏條路 ’á ’lí diau lú‘, which road?
• 幾時 ’kí zz, what time?
• 幾時辰 sa‘ zz zun, what time?
• 幾點鐘 ’ki ’tíen tsóng, what it is o’clock?
• 幾許銅錢 ’kí hó‘ (hau‘) dóng díen, how many cash?
• 轎夫幾家頭 kiau‘ fú ’kí ká deu, how many chair-bearers?

Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to indicate place; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.

Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何 hú, what? is found in combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘ hú, there is nothing I can do. But it is not used alone.

Relative pronouns. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only used in combination with 以 ’í in the sense therefore, and with ’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive, house.

• 新所在 sin sû ’dzé, a new house.
• 所以要預備 ’só ’í yau‘ ü‘ bé‘, therefore you must prepare.

The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone, coming after the verb.

• 買拉个米就擔來撥拉窮人 ’má ’la ku‘ mí dzieu‘ tan lé peh ’lá gióng niun, bring the rice you have bought at once, and give it to the poor. m. ’só ’mái tih ’mí.
• 網咾機檻咾坑坎咾禿是捉禽獸個 ’mong lau kí ’k’an lau k’áng ’k’én lau, t’óh ’zz tsoh giun seu‘ kú‘, nets, traps and covered pits, are all for catching animals. m. chúh k’in sheu‘ tih.
• 儂造拉個房子 nóng ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz, the house which you have built. m. ’ní ’só kæ‘ tih fáng ’tsz.
• 皇帝賞個俸祿 wong tí‘ ’song kú‘ fóng lóh, the emoluments which are conferred by the emperor.

Possessive pronouns. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.

201. Several is expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1] is also used.

• 來之幾個人 lé tsz ’kí kú‘ niun, several men have some.
• 好幾囘數 hau‘ ’kí wé‘ sú‘, several times.
• 大日勿來 tá nyih veh lé, it is long since you come.
• 唔啥幾許 m sá ’kí hô‘, not many.

Obs. The Greek tis is either interrogative who? (Lat. quis?) or indifinite some one, (Lat. aliquis.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is sometimes how many? and at other times several. In the latter sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means either what? or any thing.

Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 202. The pronouns used as signs of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives are 禿 全 t’óh, dzén, all or both, and 總 ’tsóng, all. None and neither are also expressed by t’óh, and dzén with a negative.

• 兩個人禿去者 ’liáng kú‘ niun t’óh k’í‘ ’tsé, the two men are both gone.
• 全勿是 dzén veh ’zz, it is neither of them.
• 全是笨個 dzén ’zz bun‘ kú‘, they are all stupid.
• 對否禿對個 té‘ ’vá, t’óh té‘ kú‘, are they right? they are all right.

Any one you please, whoever, whatever, are expressed by several borrowed phrases.

a. 大凡 tá‘ van, generally speaking, whoever.

• 大凡人做好個就有好報 tá‘ van niun tsú‘ ’hau kú‘, dzieu‘ ’yeu ’hau pau‘, whoever does well, will be at once rewarded.

Obs. 凡 van and sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.

b. 勿拘 veh kü, does not matter what.

• 勿拘多少 veh kü tú ’sau, however many.
• 勿拘早晚 veh kü ’tsau an‘, however early or late.
• 行事勿拘那能總勿局 háng zz‘ veh kü ’ná nung ’tsóng veh gióh, whatever he does it is never right.

c. 隨便 dzûe bíen, as you please, whatever.

• 隨便啥辰光 dzûe bíen‘ sá‘ zun kwong, at whatever time.
• 隨便啥人肯个 dzûe bíen‘ sá‘ niun ’k’ung kú‘, any one would be willing to do it.

d. 勿論 veh lun‘, whatever.

• 勿論啥日脚 veh lun‘ sá‘ nyih kiáh, on whatever day.
• 勿論幾時儂要就有 veh lun‘ ’kí zz, nóng‘ yau‘ dzieu‘ ’yeu, at whatever time, when you want it, you have it at once.

e. sá‘ whatever.

• 想啥話啥, ’siáng sá‘ wó‘ sá‘, whatever he thinks, he says.

Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun, who? may be answered by 第個人 tí‘ kú‘ niun, this man; 隨便啥人, dzûe bíen‘ sa‘ niun, any one whatever; 唔啥人 m sá‘ niun, no one; 多 許人 tú hau‘ niun, many men. So also, 那裏隻船 ’á lí tsáh zén, which boat? may be answered by 第隻 tí‘ tsáh, this one; 勿論那裏隻 veh lun‘ ’á lí tsáh, any one whatever; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz, it is neither; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘ tí‘ dah ’kí tsáh zén ’lí, it must be one of those that are here; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zén, it it another; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ih yáng‘ kú‘ zén, the same boat as before. Several of these questions are answered by particles already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.

Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin. Omnis, neuter, nullus, alter, alius, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls them pronominalia. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.

Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng, all, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總 kóng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóng in all; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘ pák sing‘, all the people. The substantive must accompany 衆 ’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng, all the brothers, and therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found compounded.

Obs. iv. All is also expressed by repetition of the substantive, 處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’yeu ku‘, every-where they are to be had. v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih t’sih, the whole.

Obs. v. Another translation of all is by 大凡 ta‘ van. Van is used in the sense of all in books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is only met with in this form.

203. Other different, are expressed by pih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng, or by 兩樣 ’liáng yáng‘, not the same, or by the particle 又 proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘. The same is ih yáng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.

• 要呌別人 yau‘ kau‘ bih niun, call another man.
• 總是別樣 ’tsóng ’zz bih yáng‘, is certainly different.
• 到別塲化去 tau‘ bih dzáng hau‘ k’í, go elsewhere.
• 別個國度 bih kú‘ kóh dú, another nation.
• 道理勿同個 ’tau ’lí veh dóng kú‘, different in principle.
• 話頭兩樣個 wó‘ deu ’liáng yáng‘ kú, what he says is different.
• 勿一樣個 veh ih yáng‘ kú‘, not the same.
• 又是一個 í‘ ’zz ih kú‘, that is another.
• 另呌一個 ling‘ kiau‘ ih kú‘, call another.
• 一樣個否 ih yáng‘ kú‘ ’vá, is it the same?
• 相同個 siáng dóng kú‘, the same.

Words used as pronouns. 204. The use of some other words in combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be illustrated.

a. 本 ’pun; belonging to this place, as demonstrative pronoun.

• 本地人 ’pun dí‘ niun, people of this place.
• 本地話 ’pun dí‘ wó‘, dialect of this place.
• 本廟是和尙管個 ’pun miau‘ ’zz ú zong‘ kwén kú‘, this temple to which I belong, is superintended by Buddhist priests.
• 本國個規矩 ’pun kóh kú‘ kwé ’kü, custom of this country.

b. 今 kiun, now, the present. As demonstrative pronoun, this in reference to time.

• 今朝今日 kiun tsau, kiun nyih, to-day.
• 今月今年 kiun niöh, kiun níen, this month, this year.

c. 親 t’sing, one’s own, as reflexive pronoun self; 親身 t’sing sun, himself; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu, his own mouth.

d. 多少 tú ’sau, how many? as an interrogative pronoun.

• 多少年総 tú ’sau níen ’kí, how many years old.

205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are respectful.

尊 tsun, honoured, 貴 kwé‘, ib. 高 kau, high, combine with 姓 sing, family name, 國 kóh, kingdom, etc.

• 尊姓 tsun sing‘, 貴姓 kwé‘ sing‘, 高姓 kau sing‘, your name?
• 尊庚 tsun káng, 貴庚 kwé‘ káng, 高壽 kau zeu‘, your age?
• 尊處 tsun t’sû‘, 貴處 kwé‘ t’su‘, where do you live?
• 尊府 tsun ’fu, 貴府 kwé‘ ’fu, where is your residence?

Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘, residence; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’a ’lí, where do you reside?

Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh ask of what honoured country are you? 貴地 kwé‘ dí‘, what is your place of residence? 高徒 kau dú is translated your scholar; 尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place of you, among those who are not in an inferior social position.

206. 令 ling, honoured, good, applied to persons, enters into many combinations, where it represents the possessive your.

207. 老 ’lau and 大 tá‘ are found in similar combinations.

• 老(大）爺 ’lau (tú‘) yá, sir.
• 大人 tá‘ zun, ib.
• 老(大）兄 ’lau (tá‘) h’iúng, elder brother.
• 老(大）哥 ’lau (tá‘) kú, ib.

Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síen sáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz, addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.

Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é, honoured with 甫 ’fú or 篆 dzén‘, what it your honoured name? In the plural are found 衆位 tsóng‘ wé‘ or 列位 lih wé‘, all you gentlemen!

208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the first person are equally numerous. 寒 hön, cold; 敝 pí, spoilt, inferior; 賤 dzíen, poor, cheap, form such groups, as—

• 寒門(家) hön mun (ka), my house.
• 寒荆 hön kiung, my wife, (kiung is thorn.)
• 敝處(地)(鄕) pí t’sû‘ (dí‘) (h’iáng), my abode.
• 敝(賤)姓 pí (dzíen) sing‘, my family name.
• 賤名 dzíen ming, my proper name.
• 賤内 dzíen né‘ my wife.

Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung, stupid thorn.

209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘, a cottage. Among the groups into which it enters, are—

210. Many groups take 小 ’siau, small, 家 ká, family, both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronoun my.

Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people, they are little used. Thou and I, thine and mine are prefixed.

Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’ngan tsing ’hau ’tíen ’vá, eye better, eh? So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘, name, what? While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean you and your, while their opposites are I and mine.

Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”

Section 7. On the verb, 活虛字.

211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use, there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable characters; e.g. 婆娑 pú sú, move confusedly, and 盤桓 pén wén, to linger.”

Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single characters commonly used in writing. Many of these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘, to desire, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms, as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘, to love. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.

Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time (tenses).

(1.) Grouping of verbs.

Simple and compound verbs. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.

213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they are employed.

Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different dialects.

Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé, go and come; 買賣 ’má má‘, buy and sell.

214. In many instances the first verb governs the second, as a verb does a substantive.

• 惹笑 ’zá siau‘, cause to laugh.
• 怕打 p’ó ’táng, fear being beaten.
• 怕死 p’ó ’sí, fear dying.
• 開講 k’é ’kong, begin speaking.

Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.

215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.

• 歸去 kü k’í‘, return home (lit. return go).
• 跑來 pau lé, come running, (lit. run come).
• 殺來 sah lé, come fighting.
• 抄寫 t’sau ’siá, to copy in writing (lit. copy write).

Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘, go, is limited by that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared with the English phrase go back, 歸 kü is the adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsén lé, come back; the verb ’tsén is also best translated in English, as an adverb back.

Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó (horse) lé ní, giau‘ ’tsz (sedan) lé, did you ride or come in a chair?

216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two actions are successively expressed.

• 打敗 t’áng bá‘, fight and be defeated.
• 敲開 k’au (to beat) k’é (to open), to knock open.
• 咬破 ’ngau p’u‘, break by biting.
• 請坐 ’t’sing ’zú, please sit down.
• 寫完 ’siá wén finish writing.
• 做停 tsú‘ ding, finish making.
• 吊死 tiau‘ ’sí, die by strangling.

Obs. The English verb open, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases as an open door, knock open a door, and to open a door, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a separate proposition; e.g. for an open door, 門開拉 mun k’é ’lá, the door is open.

217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíen‘, 着 záh, 住 dzû‘.

219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb and adjective.

222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.

Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them combine with 來 lé, come, and 去 k’i‘, go, to express the direction of the action of verbs.