To these may be added the tendency of the initial k to be pronounced, when standing before i, like t in the upper series, and like d or dj in the lower.

PART II.
ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Section 1. Native divisions.

83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing words, only use two pairs of terms, viz. 實, 虛 zeh, h’ü, and 死, 活 ’sz, weh. The former signifies words that have a meaning (full) and such as have not (empty). All substantives are 實字眼 seh zz‘ ’ngan. Auxiliary words or particles receive the name of 虛字眼 h’ü zz‘ ’ngan. Verbs and adjectives are placed by some writers in the first of these classes, and by others in the second. Remusat, says that verbs are 實字 zeh zz‘; a native author 畢華珍 Pih wó tsun treats, all words except substantives, as in the second class.

84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which are spoken of as 死字眼 ’si zz‘ ’ngan, or verbs which are 活字眼 weh zz‘ ’ngan. The usual sense of 活 is living, but by an extension of meaning, it is applied to anything not fixed to its place, or liable to change in its appearance or form. Hence, verbs as dependent on circumstances of time, will, etc. are termed moving or transferable words, while substantive are said to be fixed or dead.

85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work, 衍緖草堂筆記 ’íen ’zü ’t’sau dong pih kí‘, on the parts of speech and construction of sentences, has extended these divisions, by forming the 虛字 h’ü zz‘, or words not substantives, into four classes:—

1. Adjectives 呆虛字 ngé h’ü zz‘:—
   

   Ex.	高 kau, high.	多 tú, many.	大 tá‘, great.
   	低 tí, low.	少 ’sau, few.	小 ’siau, small.

2. Verbs 活虛字 weh h’ü zz‘:—
   

   Ex.

   作 tsok, to do.

   傳 dzén, to deliver down.

3. 口氣語助虛字 ’k’eu k’i‘ ’nü ’dzú h’ü zz‘. Under this head he gives as examples:—
   

   焉 íen,?	乎 ú,?	}	Interrogative and other finals.
   哉 tsé,?	也 ’yé,.
   此 ’t’sz, this.	所 ’sú, which.	}	Pronouns and the sign of the possessive.
   其 gí, he.	之 tsz, of.
   甚 zun‘, very.	可, ’k’ó, can.	}	Adverbs & auxiliary verbs.
   最 tsûe‘, „	爲 wé, be.

4. 空活虛字 k’óng weh h’ü zz‘.

Obs. The word weh is apparently employed, because conjunctions like verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in English grammar the verb is the copula, while a large class of conjunctions consists of such as are termed copulative. The word 空 is prefixed to distinguish these particles from verbs. The examples he gives are—

These examples are from the language of books. The corresponding words in the dialect will be found in their places.

86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and the rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept in concealment among the natives, the classification of which words naturally admit. Much attention has been given to the successive forms of the characters; the changes that have occurred in them, and the principles of their original formation have been carefully chronicled; but etymological studies have been comparatively neglected.

The rules of the Wun-cháng, or exercises in fine writing, law indeed been laid down, but they do not constitute the grammar of the language. While grammar is a science still unknown to the Chinese, it is a mark of the intelligence of our author that he has approached so nearly, as the preceding article shews to a western classification, and that he has defined with precision, all the principal parts of speech.

The division into parts of speech, and simple and compound words, gains in distinctness as we leave the books and restrict our illustrations to the language of conversation, and much more when instead of embracing the universal mandarin medium, we aim to exhibit the dialect of a single district.

For example the words 過 kú‘, 能 nung, 生 sáng, are in the books verbs or nouns according to their position, their tones remaining unchanged. In the Shánghái dialect they are all verbs, viz. to pass, can, to produce, If they stand alone; but the combinations of which they form part are often substantives. Ex. 過失 kú‘ seh, a fault; 能力 nung lih, strength; 生活 sáng wéh work. Ming, 明 which in the books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the colloquial have 白 páh appended to it, otherwise it is an adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a root through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots in opposition for the same purpose. In the following pages accordingly, the terms noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated of the combined forms each as a whole, and not of its constituent words except when viewed independently.

Section 2. Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects.

87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books, it will be best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest portions of the Shú-king, Book of History, date from a period that must have been at least 3000 years ago if not previous to that of Moses. The occurrence of many of the commonest words now found in the colloquial media of China in records so ancient, is a sufficient illustration of the remarkable persistence of the language. It thus appears that many of the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs, that formed the staple of conversation in the days of Yáu and Shun, are found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but are still “familiar household words,” among the whole Chinese race. The selected examples which follow are all of constant use in the Shánghái dialect.

88. Examples of single words used in combination or singly.

Names of natural objects, animals, &c.

Divisions of time.

Meteorological terms.

Numbers.

Cardinal points.

Verbs.

Adjectives.

Nouns.

Pronoun.

89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as they may be termed, dissyllabic forms.

• 百姓 pák-sing‘, the people.
• 天下 t’íen-’au, the world.
• 正月 tsung‘-niöh, 1st month.
• 聰明 ts’óng-ming, intelligent.
• 上帝 záng‘-tí‘, God.
• 鳳凰 vóng wong‘ phœnix.
• 法度 fah-dú‘, mode of government.

90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dialect, but not singly.

• 鳥 as in 窵鳥 ’tiau-niau, birds.
• 帝 as in 皇帝 wong-tí‘, emperor.
• 神 as in 神明 zun-ming, the inferior divinities.
• 位 as in 地位 tí‘-wé‘, station.
• 事 as in 事體 zz‘-’t’í, matter.
• 可 as in 可以 ’k’ó-’í, may, can.
• 日 as in 日頭 nyih-deu, the sun.
• 聞 as in 新聞 sing-vun, intelligence.
• 說 as in 說書 söh-sû, relate stories.

91. These examples, which might if it were necessary, be extended to a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhibit how the most ancient forms of speech, the primitive words of the Chinese race, have maintained their position to the present time. In a similar way, the later classics contemporary with Hebrew literature, and the most flourishing part of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still greater abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects have grown into their existing form. But there are also many new words; the passage of time must witness changes, even in the language of a people so devoted to antiquity as that of China. It has been shewn that there has been variation in tones, by referring to the pronouncing Dictionaries made long since. The natives recognize great differences In modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of the Book of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once common have become antiquated, and new ones have appeared. A reference ta colloquial mandarin will illustrate this statement, and bring before us another large portion of the materials of the dialect.

Relation to colloquial Mandarin. 92. The earliest examples of this form of Chinese, are found in works of the Sung dynasty and in the historical novels. Mencius so remarkable among the classic authors, for his picturesque imagery and the animation of his style, sometimes uses combinations, such as 朋友 páng yeu‘, friend; 自己 zz‘ ’kí, self; seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered as conversational.

93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh chi 三國志, and Lieh kwoh chi 烈國志, works now five hundred years old, of new words not found in the classics, and all in common use in our dialect.

94. Of the following new pronouns, and interrogative adverbs first found in the historical novels, there is scarcely any use made in the Shánghái dialect.

Obs. The Shánghái pronouns are all different from those, except the mutilated form 那裡 ’a ’lí? where? So for the most part those of Fúh-kien; which again differ entirely from those of the Canton dialect as contained in Bridgman’s Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are widely spread. Thus, ngó 我 I, exists in all these dialects. As a class however, they are among the words most liable to variation in colloquial Chinese.

95. The following examples of double words taken from the same works, will further illustrate the extent to which mandarin phraseology agrees with that of our dialect. They are all such combinations as are not found in the classics, and might be increased indefinitely.

• 人家 niun ká, a man.
• 低頭 tí deu, lower the head.
• 開船 k’é zén, unmoor a boat.
• 時辰 zz zun, an hour, i.e. twelfth of a day.
• 招架 tsau ká‘, shield one’s-self.
• (c) 幫助 pong dzú‘, to assist.
• 容易 yúng í‘, easy.
• 船隻 (c) zen tsáh, boats; or a boat.
• 𢬵命 ’p’ing ming‘, throw away life.
• 看見 k’ön‘ kíen‘, to see.
• 踅手 zeh ’seu, maimed hand.
• 利害 lí é‘, dangerous, severe.
• (c) 仔細 ’tsz sí‘, minutely.
• 解說 ’ká seh, explanation.
• 撞倒 dzong‘ ’tau, push down.
• 敬重 kiung‘ dzóng, revere.
• 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, very good.
• 認得 niun‘ tuh, know a person.
• 唱喏 (c) t’song‘ ’zó, join one’s hands in respect.
• 倒竪 ’tau ’zû, set up on end.

The characters marked (c) are those that were invented, to represent colloquial words written for the first time. The rest are old classical characters, but they are not found in these combinations.

97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin colloquial tales of the present dynasty, such as the well-known 紅樓夢 Dream of the Red Chamber, no closer analogy with our dialect appears. The style indeed is much more diffuse, being a faithful copy of what real conversation is, and so far it is more like provincial dialects. But as to words, the auxiliary particles (in which the chief changes occur), are peculiar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the same as those of earlier works.

Thus, 的 occurs constantly instead of 之 ch, which is the most common sign of the possessive in the Three Kingdoms. As the third personal pronoun, 那 ’ná takes the place of 其 gí The word for said, 曰 yöh, a term not used in conversation, is replaced by 說道 shwóh táú, either together or apart.

98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division that the dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words, something should be added on local terms, constituting the remainder. On examination it will be found that the words, single and compound, not in mandarin, are few. They can scarcely be many more than a hundred. In a list drawn up for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third part consisted of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest comprised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.

Many of these belong also to the dialects of the neighbouring cities. In the histories of Sú-cheú and Súng-kiáng, the short chapter devoted to the subject of colloquialisms, enumerates several that belong equally to Shánghái. They appear to have been copied in great part from one work into another, and the whole number recorded in each does not reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shánghái, will be found in the following pages under the parts of speech to which they belong. In Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Fúh-kien dialect, there are classified lists of about 250 phrases peculiar to that province. Some of these however are corrupted forms of expressions used in the other parts of China.

99. The neighbouring dialect of Sú-cheú may be expected to have much in common with that of Shánghái, The system of pronunciation is in general the same, the initial consonants forming a hard and soft series, corresponding to the upper and lower tones in the southern provinces. The following are examples of phrases, the same as those of Shánghái.

• 哉 tsé (m. 了), sign of completion.
• 子 ’tsz (m. 了), sign of past participle.
• 个 kú‘ (m. 的), sign of possessive.
• 勿 veh (m. 不), simple negative.
• 全 dsíen (m. 都), all.
• 啥 sá‘ (m. 甚麽)? what?
• 好好能 ’hau ’hau nung, well, in a good manner.
• 想着之 ’siáng záh ’tsz, having thought of.
• 拉屋裡 ’la óh ’lí, at home.
• 是介 zz‘ ké‘ (s. seh ké nung), thus.

In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect differs from Shánghái and agrees with mandarin.

Section 3. On the Substantive.

100. The native grammarian already introduced to the reader defines substantives, or rather substances, thus 天地名物, 象數事理 T’íen dí‘ ming veh‘ ziáng‘ sú‘ zz‘ ’li, “Heaven, earth, names and things, images, numbers, facts and principles;” 凡有形有質, 有氣有聲 van ’yeu yiung ’yeu tseh ’yeu k’i ’yeu sung, “all things that have form, material substances, breath and sound;” 一切有端可指者 ih t’sih ’yeu tön ’k’ó ’tsz ’tsé, “all things having any property that can be pointed out;” 皆謂之實字 kia wé‘ tsz seh zz‘, “are called substantives.”

“The names of substances,” he adds, “may consist of one or several characters, which must be arranged in classes, brought under the dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in the memory for use when required.” Such nouns as express the properties of substances he calls 子字 ’tsz zz‘, “son characters,” while the names of the substances themselves are termed 毋字 ’mú zz‘, “mother characters.” Attributes he further subdivides into “universal,” 公共子字 kóng góng‘ ’tsz zz‘, and “special,” 實在子字 seh zé ’tsz zz‘.

Combined and uncombined substantives. 101. One of the most striking peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns, verbs or particles, is the strictness with which the laws of combination and order are observed. Each dialect has many words that can be used with or without an adjunct, and may be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large class embraces such as are never used by the natives, except in apposition with some other word, and constituting for that dialect, what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or monosyllabic kind are the following examples (s. c).

102. In construction, these and similar words may be observed to remain in an uncombined state. The first word in each, of the following sentences exemplifies this remark.

• 米糴好否 ’mi tih ’hau ’vá? have you brought rice?
• 人是一樣个 niun ’zz ih yáng‘ kú, I am a man as you.
• 袖要大 dzien‘ yau‘ dú‘, let the sleeve be large.

These words may all of them be used in combination, according to some of the laws described in the succeeding paragraphs. Thus they appear in dissyllabic forms such as—

103. The other class consists of those words that are never used without an adjunct. For example 衣 í dress, not used alone, is found among other combinations in the following.

So also 猪 tsz, 日 zeh, 房 vong, 禮 ’lí, are found in combination only.

• 猪驢 tsz lú, a pig.
• 過房 ku‘ vong, adopted child.
• 江猪 kong tsz, the river pig (a fish).
• 禮物 ’lí veh, presents.
• 日食 nyih zuh, eclipse of the sun.

104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus requires it, cannot be omitted.

• 着衣裳 tsáh í zong, put on clothes.
• 殺猜驢个 sah tsz lú kú‘, pork butcher.
• 日頭落山 nyih deu lok san, sun is setting.
• 租房子 tsú vong ’tsz, let a house.
• 送禮物 sóng‘ ’lí veh, offer presents.

Combination. 105. Substantives are formed of two or more substantives combined in various ways. If the collocation consists of species and genus, the former precedes.

• 牡丹花 mau‘-tan‘ hwó, moutan pœny.
• 孛相船 peh-siáng‘ zén pleasure boat.
• 堦沿石 ká-íen záh, first door-step.
• 磨刀石 mú tau záh, grind-stone.
• 紅緯帽子 hóng wé‘ mau‘-’tsz, red tasselled hat.

Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the species. The word 石 záh requires 頭 as its appendage, if there is no specific term prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word is omitted. In the last case 子 tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or dropped at pleasure.

106. When the compound substantive formed by juxtaposition, consists of whole and part, or substance and accident or attribute, the former precedes.

Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives (Literæ oppositæ, Premare), of which there are several in common use without a particle between them. 姊妹 tsí (elder sister) mé‘ (younger do.) sisters; 禽獸 kiun (birds), seu‘ (beasts), animals; 天地 t’íen dí‘, heaven and earth; 夫婦 fú vú‘, husband and wife; 山水人物 san ’sz niun veh, mountains, water, men and things: 銅錢銀子 tóng díen niung ’tsz, copper and silver money.

110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives, by taking after them such auxiliaries as 頭 teu, 法 fah and 處 t’sû‘.

111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the next section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and their nouns, often follow their substantives without a numeral. A compound is thus formed, in which the sense of the classifying particle is often preserved, A piece of is expressed by k’wé. A bar of by tiau.

Obs. In the longer examples, some verbs will be found which enter into composition, as those in Art. 113.

113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in the same way as substantives.

Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express plurality (v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more common. See also Part III. Repetition.

119. The formation of compound substantives, by the simple apposition of two or more roots, is also found in other languages. English and German contain many examples. Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all enter into these forms. E.g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall (s. v.), footstool (s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German), adieu (prep. s. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital.), safeguard (a. s.), white-bait (a. s.), Rath-haus (s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though many of these words are written without a break, the accent on the penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that they are compounds. In languages that have an extensive system of terminations such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit, when composition occurs, the constituent roots become one word, and the affix of declension, &c. in the word that precedes is usually omitted. Thus, in αὐτάδελφος and αὐτόχειρ the simple root aut precedes the word to which it is joined, in one case with no adjunct, and in the other with the connecting vowel o. In the Latin word respublica, reipublicæ we have two roots in apposition, without the process of declension being interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this, are much rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern, where the root admits of few variations in its form.

• 雄鷄雌鷄 yióng-kí t‘sz-kí, a cock and hen.
• 一隻雄獅子 ih tsáh yióng sz-tsz, a male lion.[1]
• 男人 nén niun, husband.
• 女囝 ’nü nön, a girl.