A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

In these groups 得 tuh and 勿 veh (不 púh m.), take the centre, and certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs stand last. The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and modified in various ways. 得 tuh and 勿 veh being opposite in sense, the modifications they produce in the sense of the verb must be opposed also. They may be reduced to the following pairs of terms.

1st. It is predicted of the agent, that he is able or knows how to effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e.g. 做得來 tsú‘ tuh lé, able to do or make; 做勿来 tsú‘ veh lé, unable to do or make.

2nd. It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, 當得起 tong tuh ’k’í, in circumstances to bear; 讀勿起 tóh veh ’k’í, cannot afford to learn to read; 拖勿起 t’ú veh ’k’í, not strength to drag.

3rd. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does succeed, and the opposite; e.g. 尋得着 zing tuh záh, can find (尋 zing seek); 打勿着 ’táng veh záh, it did not, or cannot hit.

4th. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or cannot be performed in a particular direction; e.g. 走勿進 ’tseu veh tsing‘, cannot go inside.

5th. Of verbs of motion, resistance and destruction, it is predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in meaning, that the act they represent, can or cannot take place. 走得動 ’tseu tuh ’dóng can walk; 阻勿住 ’tsú veh dzû‘, unable to resist; 解勿脫 ’ká veh t’eh, cannot get rid of.

6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective, that the act is or can be performed, to the extent indicated the adjective or the contrary; e.g. 醫得好 í (cure) tuh ’hau (good) can be cured; 填勿滿 tíen veh ’mén cannot be filled by layers.

228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and negative groups, verbs are the most numerous.

a. 來 lé, come, 出 t’seh, go out, express able to.

• 寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, do not know how to write.
• 聽勿來 t’ing veh lé, have not the power to hear.
• 呌勿出 kiau‘ veh t’seh, know not what to call it.
• 講得出 ’kong tuk t’seh, can discourse on it.

Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducing an adverb. 聽大勿出 t’ing dá‘ veh t’seh, I do not hear very well.

b. 起 ’k’í, rise, expresses in circumstances to.

• 板勿起 ’pan veh ’k’í, it is not for me to look angry.
• 睏勿起 k’wun‘ veh ’k’í, afraid to sleep.
• 染勿起 ’níen veh ’k’í, will not bear to be dyed.
• 印勿起 yun‘ veh ’k’í, will not bear impressions.
• 見勿起 kíen‘ veh ’k’í, do not dare meet him.

c. 着, 出, 見, záh, t’seh, kíen‘, express success in any single action; verbs of striking and seeking take záh; while verbs of thinking and perception take t’seh and kíen‘.

• 呌得着 kiau‘ tuh záh, succeed in calling him.
• 殺勿着 sah veh záh, not succeed in killing.
• 懂勿出 ’tóng veh t’seh, cannot understand.
• 看勿出 k’ön‘ veh t’seh, I do not (or cannot) see it.
• 看勿見 k’ön‘ veh kíen‘, ib.

d. 進, 出, 落, 過, 轉, 開, express direction as in the examples.

• 進得進 tsing‘ tuh tsing‘, able to enter.
• 行勿出 háng veh t’seh, cannot pass out.
• 吃勿落 k’iuh veh loh, cannot swallow or eat.
• 跑勿過 pau‘ veh kú‘, cannot pass by.
• 縮勿轉 sóh veh ’tsén, cannot return.
• 打得開 ’táng tuh k’é, can beat open.
• 睏勿落 k’wun‘ veh loh, cannot lie down (either through pain or want of room).

e. 脱, 動, 住, t’eh, ’tóng, dzû‘, express destruction, motion, and resistance. e.g.

• 滅勿脱 mih veh t’eh, cannot destroy.
• 做勿動 tsú‘ veh ’dóng, disabled from work.
• 跑勿動 pau veh ’dóng, unable to walk.
• 免勿脱 ’mien veh t’eh, unable to avoid.
• 立勿住 lih veh dzû‘, not able to stand.
• 當得住 tong tuh dzû‘, able to resist.

f. 得 tuh, expresses permission and prohibition.

• 動勿得 tóng veh tuh, may not do it.
• 去得 k’i‘ tuh, may go.
• 逃走勿得 tau ’tseu veh tuh, may not flee.

• 呌勿停 kiau‘ veh ding, not cease to call .
• 哭勿停 k’óh veh ding, not cease to weep.
• 用勿完 yúng‘ veh wén, cannot exhaust by using.
• 痛勿停 t’ong‘ veh ding, not cease to pain.

h. 成功, 盡, 到, express perfection of an act.

• 做勿成功 tsú‘ veh dzung kóng, cannot complete.
• 走得到 ’tseu tuk tau‘, can walk to.
• 想勿到 ’siáng veh tau‘, cannot reach in thought.
• 及勿到 kih veh tau‘, cannot come up to or equal.
• 報答勿盡 pau‘ tah veh dzing‘, unable to shew sufficient gratitude.

i. 及 kih or kí, expresses there is time for.

• 抄勿及 t’sau veh gí, not time to copy.
• 追得及 tsûe tuh gí, time to overtake.
• 來勿及 lé veh gí, not time for it.

j. 落 loh, expresses room for.

• 擱得落 koh tuh loh, room to pack.
• 安勿落 ön veh loh, not room to place.
• 坐勿落 ’zú veh loh, not room to sit.

k. 過 kú‘, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give superiority.

• 打也打伊勿過, 話也話伊勿過, ’táng ’á ’táng í veh kú‘, wó‘ ’á wó‘ í veh kú‘, cannot conquer him by beating, nor by using the tongue.
• 敵得過 tih tuh kú‘, can oppose him successfully.

l. 理 ’lí, to control, ’long, bring together, 殺 sah, kill and 應 yung‘, answer, add their own sense to the verb.

• 話勿理 wo‘ veh ’lí, not attend to what is said.
• 喊得理 han‘ tuh ’lí, will come when called.
• 合勿攏 heh veh ’lóng, cannot agree together.
• 呌勿應 kiau‘ veh yung‘, not answer a call.

Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from that assigned to them here; e.g. 看勿起 kön‘ veh ’k’i, to despise; 買勿動 ’má veh ’dóng, not succeed in buying; 相信勿過 siáng sing‘ veh kú‘, incredible; 意勿過 í‘ veh kú‘, cannot but pity; 罷勿得 pá‘ veh tuh, indispensable.

Obs. ii. 有 ’yeu, have and 嘸 m, not to have, form with tuh a few groups; e.g. 有得吃 ’yeu tuh k’iuh, have something to eat; 嘸得着 m tuh tsáh, have nothing to wear.

Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of 見, 脱, 動, 應 and 理, The rest are all extensively used.

229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative and affirmative groups are rare. Those that are used may also be construed as verbs.

a. 前 zíen before.

• 殺勿前 sah veh zíen, does not go forward fighting.

b. 上 ’zong, forward.

• 踛勿上 lóh veh ’zong, cannot be climbed.
• 鎖勿上 ’sú veh ’zong, (key) cannot be turned (cannot lock.)
• 門關勿上 mun kwan veh ’zong, door will not shut.

c. 下 ’au, down.

• 踛勿下 lóh veh ’au, cannot climb down.
• 吃勿下 k’iuh veh ’au, cannot swallow.

230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations; e.g. 全, 直, 多, 好, 滿, 完, 全, 通, 明 白, etc.

• 讀勿全 tóh veh dzíen, cannot be read through.
• 伸勿直 sun veh dzuh, cannot stretch out straight.
• 差勿多 t’só veh tú, differs little.
• 話得好 wó‘ tuh ’hau, well spoken.
• 補得滿 ’pú tuh ’mén, can be filled up.
• 走勿通 ’tseu veh t’óng, no thoroughfare.
• 話勿明白 wó‘ veh ming báh, cannot be made to understand.

Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as 跑得快 pau‘ tuk k’wá‘, the proposition is not one of possibility, he can walk fast, but of fact, he walks fast.

а. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively are repeated.

b. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they govern.

• 寫寫字 ’siá ’sia zz‘, write.
• 種種田 tsóng‘ tsóng‘ díen, work in the fields.
• 候候儂 heu‘ heu‘ nóng‘, I come to see you.

c. k’ön‘, see, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphorical sense.

• 睃睃看 sú sú k’ön‘, see what it is.
• 聽聽看 t’ing t’ing k’ön‘, listen to it and see.
• 試試看 sz‘ sz‘ k’ön‘, try it and see.
• 做做看 tsú‘ tsú‘ k’ön‘, make it as a trial.

Obs. K’ön‘ also follows other groups, as 念起來看 nian‘ ’k’í lé k’ön‘, read and let me hear.

d. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.

• 談談說說 tan dan söh söh, conversing.
• 啼啼哭哭 tí dí k’óh k’óh, weeping.
• 來來去去 lé lé k’í‘ k’í‘, coming and going.

e. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their component parts.

• 攀談攀談 p’an dan p’an dan, talking.
• 恭喜恭喜 kúng ’h’í, kúng ’h’í, I congratulate you.

f. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its subject, a group of four is formed by repeating the former, and supplying the place of the latter by a synonymous or contrasted word.

• 嘸邊嘸岸 m píen m ngön‘, not having a shore.
• 動手動脚 ’tóng ’seu ’dóng kiáh, move hands and feet.
• 有憑有據 ’yeu bing yeu kü‘, there is evidence.

g. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by synonymous or contrasted words.

• 求天拜地 kieu t’íen pá‘ dí‘, pray to heaven and worship earth.
• 幷心竭力 ping‘ sing gih lih (or liuh), employ one’s whole mind and strength.

h. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical verbs in alteration.

• 跑来跑去 ’pau lé ’pau k’í‘, walking about.
• 搖進搖出 yau tsing‘ yau t’seh, row in and out.

• 走一走 ’tseu ih ’tseu, walk a little.
• 等一等 ’tung ih ’tung, wait a little.
• 待個待 té‘ kú‘ dé‘, wait.
• 做個做 ’zú kú‘ ’zú, sit down.

• 送禮物拉儂 sóng‘ ’lí veh ’lá nóng‘, present you with gifts.
• 撥飯拉儂吃 peh van‘ ’lá nóng‘ k’iuh, give you rice.

Obs. This is the same as Remusat’s rule, “Dans les verbes à double rapport’ le complément direct se place après le verbe, et est suivi du complément indirect” 天子能薦人於天 t’íen ’tsz nung tsíen‘ zun ü t’íen, the emperor can propose a person to Heaven; the order is not however confined to this one form; e.g. 送拉儂個物事 sóng‘ ’lá nóng‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, I bring you a present, is the same as, sóng‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng‘; 送儂兩個物事 sóng‘ nóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ I bring you a few things, is just as proper as sóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng.

237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by the use of the auxiliary 担 tan, which is also the sign of the instrument.

• 担蠟燭火吹隱 tan lah tsóh ’hú t’sz ’yun, blow out the candle.
• 担竹爿來打 tan tsók pan lé ’táng, strike with a bamboo.
• 担門關子 tan mun kwan tsz, shut the door.

238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposition or another verb, prefer the last place.

• 此地坐 ’t’sz dí‘ ’zú, sit here.
• 第頭跑 tí‘ deu pau‘, walk here.
• 幾時來 ’kí zz lé, when did you come.
• 我船上來 ’ngú zén long‘ lé, I come from the boat.

Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb with a substantive, the verb may precede or follow; e.g. 到此地來 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé, come here is equivalent to lé tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘. So also 坐拉第搭, ’zú ’lá tí‘ tah, sit here, is the same as ’lá tí‘ tah ’zú.

239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb 撥 peh, give, with the substantive that represents the agent, to the transitive verb.

• 撥別人打 peh bih niun ’táng, was beaten by others.
• 撥伊做唆我 peh í tsú sú ’ngú, I was deceived by him.

Obs. i. This auxiliary particle 撥 peh, give, has in all four uses:— Active, 撥三兩個銅錢拉伊 peh san ’liang kú‘ tóng dien ’lá í, give him two or three cash. Passive, 撥拉父母責備 peh ’lá ’vú ’mú tsah bé‘, he was rebuked by his parents. 我個帽子撥拉人偷之去者 ’ngú kú‘ mau‘ ’tsz peh ’lá niun t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, my hat has been stolen by some one. Causative, 撥拉伊死 peh ’lá í ’sí, cause him to die; 伊撥拉我喫虧者 í peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’ü (k’wé) ’tsé, he has caused me to suffer. (m. 使 shï‘ 呌 kiau‘, chiau‘.) Permissive, 啥人肯撥拉別人欺負呢 sá‘ niun ’k’ung peh ’lá bih niun c‘hi vú‘ ni? who is willing to allow others to insult him? 勿要撥拉別人哄騙儂 veh yau‘ peh ’lá bih niun hóng‘ p‘ien‘ nóng‘, do not allow others to deceive you.

Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word to give, that is chosen for the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this purpose 被 pei‘.

Obs. iii. ’Zeu 受 to receive, is often used as a passive, e.g. 勿肯受 別人罵 veh ’k’ung ’zeu bih niun mó‘, unwilling to be spoken ill of by others. K’iuh 吃 is found in combination as in the next examples. When separated from the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it recovers its transitive sense to eat.

240. Verbs are made causative By prefixing kau‘, to call, or peh, to give.

• 呌我吃虧 kau‘ ’ngú k’iuh k’ü, causing me to suffer loss.
• 勿要呌吾白送脫 veh yau‘ kaú ngú báh sóng‘ t’eh, do not cause me to give it away (or say it) in vain.
• 呌水勿要滾 kiau‘ ’sz veh yau‘ ’kwun, prevent the water from boiling.
• 撥拉我吃官司 peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh kwén sz, causing me to be the subject of a lawsuit.

Obs. i The English auxiliary verb must is expressed by ’tsóng, as in 總要牢實’tsóng yau‘ lau zeh, you must be upright.

a. 得 tuh.

• 看得 k’ön‘ tuh, you may look at.
• 看勿得 k’ön‘ veh tuh, you may not look.

b. 好 ’hau, and 可以 ’k’ó ’í, also give a permissive sense.

• 好進去杏 ’hau tsing‘ k’i‘ ’vá, may I enter?
• 勿好出去 veh ’hau t’seh k’i‘, you must not go out.
• 可以吃得 ’k’ó ’í k’iuk tuh, you may eat it.

247. An optative mode of the verb is formed by pó veh tuh, and hng‘ veh tuh. (恨 hng‘, west of Shánghái hung‘).

• 我巴勿得快點到 ’ngú pó veh tuh k’wa‘ ’tíen tau‘, would that I could arrive quickly.
• 恨勿得做好 hng‘ veh tuh tsú‘ ’hau, I wish I could do it.

248. The imperative (1) in its negative form takes 要 yau‘, want, with the common negative particle 勿 veh.

• 勿要閙 veh yau‘ nau‘, do not be noisy.

(2.) The affirmative form of the imperative is expressed by the verb alone, or by 末者 meh ’tsé, or 罷 pá‘ appended sometimes to a few verbs.

Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the affirmative and negative, may be used as imperatives without a particle. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, means either I am passing you or pass over to me.

1. By the interrogative particles man‘ and ’vá.

• 飯好曼 van‘ ’hau man‘, is dinner ready?
• 去否 k’í‘ ’vá, will you go?

2. By putting the question in the form of an affirmative and negative, side by side. The particle ní is often placed between.

• 肯去勿肯去 ’k’ung k’í‘ veh ’k’ung k’í‘, will you or not?
• 曉得勿曉得 ’h’iau tuh veh ’h’iau tuh, do you know?
• 買呢勿買 ’má ní veh ’má, will you buy?

Obs. After ní, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa‘; e.g.

• 要打呢啥 yau ’táng ní sá, do you want to fight, or what is it you want to do?

(4) Particles of time, forming tenses of verbs.

252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word is necessary.

• 我勿做啥 ’ngú veh tsú‘ sá‘, I am doing nothing.
• 來呢勿來 lé ní veh lé, is he coming or not?
• 懂勿懂 ’tóng veh ’tóng, do you understand or not?
• 怕冷否 p’ó‘ ’láng ’vá, do you fear cold?
• 勿能勿怕冷 veh nung veh p’o‘ ’lang; I cannot but fear cold.

Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it will be better to take the particles in succession, and show what tenses they may be used for.

a. 歇 h’ih, a moment; this particle gives a past sense to the phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately designated an aorist.

• 看歇戲否 k’ön‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, have you seen the play?
• 去歇兩囘 k’í‘ h’ih ’liáng wé‘, I have gone twice.

b. 者 ’tsé, 哩 ’lí; these particles express that the action is completed, or determined on. m. 了 ’liaú. Their English grammatical equivalent is usually the passive participle joined with the auxiliary verb to be.

• 買好拉者 ’má ’hau ’lá ’tsé, they are bought.
• 賣脱者 má‘ t’eh ’tsé, it is sold.
• 我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, I am going.

c. 過 kú‘, past; this particle has the sense of the preterite tense.

• 到過兩囘 tau‘ kú‘ ’liáng wé‘, I have gone twice.
• 花種過多少 hwó tsóng‘ kú‘ tú ’sau, how many flowers have you planted?
• 路跑過幾化里 lú‘ pau‘ kú‘ ’ki hó‘ ’li, how many miles of road have we walked?

Obs. 有 ’yeu and 可 ’k’ó, employed in some dialects as signs of the past, are never so used in this.

d. 歇者 h’ih ’tsé or h’ih ’lá ’tsé, express perfect time.

• 認得過歇者 niung‘ tuh kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, have known him.
• 忒伊話歇者 t’eh í wó‘ h’ih ’tsé, have told him.
• 鐘敲歇拉者 tsóng k’au h’ih ’lá ’tsé, bell has rung.
• 托撥歇者 t’ok peh h’ih ’tsé, have entrusted to him.

e. 過歇 kú‘ h’ih, form a perfect farther in the past than the above.

• 來過歇者 lé kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, I have come formerly.
• 勿曾去過歇 veh zung k’i‘ kú‘ h’ih, I have yet gone.
• 學過歇拉者 hok kú‘ h’ih ’lá ’tsé, I have learnt it before.

• 要落雨者 yau‘ loh ’ü ’tsé, it will rain.
• 明朝要去 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘, I will go to-morrow.

g. 將 tsiáng, is frequently used for the future.

• 將有閙事 tsiáng ’yeu nau‘ zz‘, there will be a disturbance.

Obs. These particles give the affirmative future. The form for the negative is different as is shown below.

h. 之 tsz; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle having.

• 看之書末曉得者 k’ön‘ tsz sû meh, ’h’iau tuh ’tsé, when you have read it, you will know.
• 懂之末好講 ’tóng tsz meh ’hau ’kong, when you understand it, you can explain it.
• 做之兵咾打帳去者 tsu‘ tsz ping lau ’táng tsáng‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, having become a soldier, he has gone to fight.

Obs. As a relative tense particle, this word may be used in past or future time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative participle; e.g. 看見之山高咾走上去者 k’ön‘ kíen‘ tsz san kau lau, ’tseu ’zong k’í‘ ’tsé, seeing the hill was high, he went up. In the latter case it forms a future perfect, such as is introduced in English with “when,” 寫好之撥拉我看 ’sia ’hau tsz peh ’lá ’ngú k’ön‘, when you have written it, let me see it. The conditional particle 末 meh, is frequently introduced at the end of the first clause.

i. 曾 zung; as 之 tsz expresses the past in affirmative sentences, so zung in those that are negative.

• 勿曾看歇 veh zung k’ön‘ h’ih, I have not seen it.
• 勿曾來 veh zung lé, he has not come.

Obs. In a negative reply to a question, this particle is introduced, when in English the present tense is employed; 勿曾去 veh zung k’í‘, he is not gone.

253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unnecessary.

• 昨日去個 zoh (g) nyih k’í‘ kú‘, he went yesterday.
• 我後日去 ’ngú ’heu nyih k’í‘, I shall go on the day after to-morrow.

254. The particles for future time are not used in the negative form.

• 我勿去, ’ngú veh k’í‘, I shall not go.

Obs. i. If yau‘ 要 is employed in a negative sentence whose time is future, it is in the sense of wish or must; e.g. 我勿要去 ’ngú veh yau‘ k’í‘, I do not wish to go. 將 tsiáng, when it occurs, must stand first, so that when 勿 veh introduces the sentence, it cannot form a part of it.

Obs. ii. 勿見得 veh kíen‘ tuh, it is not likely, is very commonly employed as a negative future; e.g. 勿見得落雨 veh kíen‘ tuh loh ’u, it is not likely to rain, or it will not rain.

255. Examples of some verbs that require illustration are here appended.

а. 當 tong in combination ought, receive: tong‘ regard as, to pawn. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.

• 當之年撥草伊吃 tong‘ tsz nieu peh ’t’sau í k’iuh, regard him as a buffalo, and feed him on grass.
• 輕個當之重個 k’iung kú‘ tong‘ tsz ’dzóng kú‘, what is light regard as heavy.
• 該當個 ké tong kú‘, ought.
• 勿敢當 veh ’kén tong, not dare receive it.
• 當衣裳去 tong‘ í zong k’í’, am going to pawn clothes.

b. 打 ’táng, beat, set in operation.

• 打官司 ’táng kwén sz, go to law.
• 打官話 ’táng kwén wó‘, speak mandarin.
• 打秋風 ’táng t’sieu fóng, make presents in hope of gain.

c. 待 té‘, to treat, wait.

• 待慢 té‘ man‘, treat contemptuously.
• 待人接物 té‘ niun tsih veh, treat persons respectfully.
• 待我來 té‘ ’ngú lé, wait till I come.

d. 銷 siau, consume, melt.

• 開銷 k’é siau, to expend.
• 銷烊 siau yáng, to melt.

e. 對 té‘ (d) correspond, opposite.

• 總勿對境 ’tsóng veh té‘ ’kiung, nothing pleases him.
• 更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, still more wrong.
• 對面看起來 té‘ míen‘ k’ön‘ ’k’í lé, on the other hand you see.

f. 弄 lóng‘, meddle with, play with.

• 弄壞 lóng‘ wá‘, spoil.
• 作弄 tsoh lóng‘, deceive.
• 弄假成眞 lóng‘ ’ká zung tsun, make-believe becomes truth at last.
• 弄孛相 lóng‘ beh siáng‘, amuse one’s-self with.

g. 費 fí‘, to expend.

• 費用 fí‘ yúng‘, expenses.
• 費神 fí‘ zun, 費心 fí‘ sing, may I trouble you.

h. 是 ’zz, it is, it is right, right.

• 是非 ’zz fí, right and wrong.
• 是得極 ’zz tuh giuh, very right.
• 嘸啥勿是 m sá veh ’zz, not at all untrue.

i. 話 wó‘, say (m. ’kiáng, or shwóh), in combination, words.

• 話勿轉 wó‘ veh ’tsen, will not listen to words, or he keeps his words.
• 話定當 wó‘ ding‘ tong‘, said decisively.
• 啥話頭 sá‘ wó‘ deu, why use such words?

k. 可 ’k’ó, can, may.

• 可恨 ’k’ó hng‘, a thing to be hated, hateful.
• 實在可愛 seh zé‘ ’k’ó é‘, truly to be loved, (truly loveable.)

Obs. These forms with ’k’ó, might also, if construed as dissyllables, be placed among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.

l. 倒 ’tau, to overturn.

• 推倒 t’é ’tau, to turn over.
• 推倒傅來 tíen ’tau tsén lé, place upside down.
• 倒勿是 ’tau veh ’zz, and yet it is not.

m. 生 sáng, produce, be by nature, be born.

• 耳𦖋生得好 ’ní ’tú sáng tuh ’hau, has handsome ears.
• 生來好看 sáng lé ’hau k’ön‘, naturally handsome.
• 未生之前 ví‘ sung tsz zíen, before birth.
• 生出果子來 sáng t’seh ’ku ’tsz lé, bear fruit.

Section 8. Prepositions and Postpositions.

Obs. i. 勒拉 leh lá, a locative particle also precedes its noun. 在 zé‘, its m. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed collocations, as 實在 zeh zé‘, certain.

Obs. ii. 自 zz‘ is an inseparable preposition used in combination with zóng, from. 當 a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also only found in fixed groups; e.g. 當初 tong t’sú, formerly.

Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate sense, viz. 徒, 到, 對, 而, to follow, to arrive at, to correspond, to take origin from.

Obs. iv. 爲 wé‘, on account of, is found with the particles 之 tsz, or 着 záh; 搭 tah also very frequently takes 之 tsz.

Obs. v. 連 líen, together with, is also used as a verb to connect. It frequently takes 搭 tah, after it; e.g. 連搭一家屋裏人 líen tah ih ká óh ’lí niun, together with all his family.

257. The particles that are used for the locative case are postpositions.

• 隱隱然 ’yung ’yung zén, not clearly.
• 興興然 h’iung h’iung zén, prosperously.
• 約約乎 yáh yáh hú, indistinctly.
• 幾幾乎 ’kí ’kí hú, very near.
• 稀稀能 h’í h’í nung, seldom met with.
• 險險能 ’h’ien ’h’ien nung, dangerously.
• 快快裏 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ ’lí, quickly.

Obs. i. Zén and hú, are found in book phrases transferred to the dialect. Expressions formed with nung and ’lí, are pure colloquial, and are very numerous.

Obs. ii. Kiau‘ is used in one instance 慢慢敎 man‘ man‘ kiau‘, slowly.

Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs than as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zén, nung etc. 走路一門心思 ’tseu lú‘ ih mun sing sz, he walks eagerly.

260. The numerals 一 ih, 兩 ’liáng, combine with certain words, principally adjectives, to form adverbs.

Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. 放拉兩起個 fong‘ ’lá ’liáng k’í‘ kú‘, place them apart; 當伊父母一般 tong‘ í ’vú ’mú ih pén, treats him in the same way that he does his parents.

261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used as adverbs.

• 早早來 ’tsau ’tsau lé, come early.
• 慢慢走 man‘ man‘ ’tseu, walk slowly.

Obs. Sometimes the adjective is not repeated, as in 慢去 man‘ k’í‘, be slow to go, good bye, In 走好 ’tseu ’hau, walk carefully, the adverb follows the verb as in English.

262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in frequent use.

• 丁冬了冬 ting tóng ting tóng, sound of drum (’kú).
• 鎟鋃鎟鋃 song long song long, ib. horse bells (ling).
• 帖塌帖塌 t’ih t’ah t’ih t’ah, sound of shoes.
• 結怪結怪 kih kwá kih kwá, calling of crows.
• 刮臘刮臘 kwah lah kwah lah, wind blowing on reeds.
• 兵兵浜浜 ping ping páng páng, noise of beating ice.
• 以列以列 ’í lih ’í lih, braying of asses.
• 以挨以挨 ’í á ’í á, creaking of doors.
• 胡盧胡盧 ú lú ú lú, sound of piping.
• 㷸爆㷸爆 pih póh pih póh, sound of splitting bamboo as by fire.

Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they are here noticed. The second and third tones scarcely occur in these onomatopœia. The forms used in other dialects differ from these.

263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and not reducible to the heads already given are such as,—

• 白白裏 páh báh ’lí, in vain; or, páh alone, e.g. páh sóng‘ t’éh.
• 特特裏 tuh duh ’lí, on purpose.
• 特意 tuh í‘, intentionally.
• 偷伴子 t’eu bén ’tsz, secretly.
• 假佯頭 ’ká yáng deu, falsely.
• 倖喜 yung‘ ’h’í, luckily.
• 造化 ’zau hó‘, 恰好 hah ’hau, fortunately.

264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, applied to qualify adjectives.