• 人人來者 niun niun lé ’tsé, the men are all come.
• 國國太平 kók kók t’á‘ bing, nations all at peace.
• 世世代代 sz‘ sz‘ dé‘ dé‘, age after age.

• 伊个聲氣 í kú‘ sáng k’í‘, his voice.
• 花个蘂頭 hwó kú‘ ’nü deu, the buds of flowers.
• 人个面孔 niun kú‘ míen‘ ’k’óng, the human voice.

Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantive is formed, as hwó ’nü deu, flower buds. Here no transposition is necessary, the predicated part standing last in both cases. English idiom placing the subject after the possessive particle, also requires the definite article to begin the sentence, “the buds of flowers.” When the constituent words are not adapted to form a compound substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the particle is always retained.

131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is known by position, coming after the verb. The nominative always precedes the verb.

• 我告訴㑚 ’ngú kau‘ sú‘ ná‘, I tell you.
• 送我一本 sóng ’ngú ih ’pun, give me a book.
• 勿要駡人 veh yau‘ mó‘ niun, do not rail at people.
• 告訴伊拉者 kau‘ sú‘ í ’lá ’tsé, I have told him.

132. Only the verb 話 wó‘, to say, requires a particle to precede the objective noun. The words 替, 對, 忒, t’í‘, té‘, t’eh, may either of them be employed.

• 吾替㑚話 ’ngú t’í‘ ná‘ wó‘, I tell you.
• 忒伊話末者 t’eh í wó‘ meh ’tsé, tell him.
• 對伊話拉者 té‘ í wó‘ ’lá ’tse, have told him.

Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the substantive ungoverned, and renders a preposition necessary. So in English say requires to after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the dative without a preposition, as dico vobis.

• 撥我一箇 peh ’ngú ih kú‘, give me one.
• 撥飯拉我 peh van ’lá ’ngú, give me rice.
• 撥飯我吃 peh van‘ ’ngú k’iuh, ditto.
• 撥之我末者 peh tsz ’ngú meh ’tsé, give it to me.
• 撥拉伊拉者 peh ’lá í ’lá ’tsé, have given it him.

Obs. i. In English to is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as occur in Gloria Patri, dedicated to the interests of truth, my love to you cannot be expressed.

Obs. ii. In the example peh ’ngú ih kú‘, the dative comes next to the verb, while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These differences of position are occasioned by the rhythmus.

134. To a place is expressed by 到 tau‘, usually with a verb of motion following the substantive.

• 到蘇州去者 tau‘ Sú-tseu k’i‘ ’tsé, gone to Sú-cheú.
• 幾時到上海 ’kí zz tau‘ Zóng‘ ’hé, when did you come to Shánghái?
• 到此地来做啥 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé tsú‘ sá? what do you come to do?

135. Motion from or by (ablative) is expressed by 自 zz‘, 從 zóng, 由 yeu or 打, ’táng. The last of these is most frequently employed.

• 打啥户堂來 ’táng sá‘ ú dong lé? whence do you come?
• 打故邊走 ’táng kú‘ píen ’tseu, go that way.
• 從第搭到屋裡 dzóng dí‘ dah tau‘ óh ’lí, from hence home.

136. The sense of for, instead of is given by several particles, 替, 代, 代替, 忒, 爲, t’í, dé, dé t’í, t’uh and wé‘, are all in use.

• 忒我去買 t’uh ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, go and buy for me.
• 爲之我咾 wé‘ tsz ’ngú lau— on my account—.
• 替儂做生活 t’í‘ nóng tsú‘ sáng weh, do work instead of you.

137. In and at (locative case) are expressed by 勒拉 leh ’lá and 拉 ’lá before, and 裏 ’lí or 裏向 ’lí h’iáng‘, after the substantives, (m. 在 tsai‘ prefixed, 裏, 内, 中, ’lí, núi‘, chóng suffixes).

• 勿拉屋裏 veh ’lá óh ’lí, not at home.
• 勿拉上海 veh ’lá Zóng‘ ’hé, not at Shánghái.
• 勒拉勿勒拉 leh ’lá veh leh ’lá, at home or not?
• 勿勒裏 veh leh ’lí, not at home.
• 嘴裏工夫 tsz‘ lí kúng fú, mere words.
• 心裏向 sing ’lí h’iáng, in the mind.

138. With, of (instrumental case) are expressed by the verb, tan (also nan west of Shánghái), or nó, to bring, preceding the noun and a verb following it. (m. 將 tsiáng, 把 pa; in books, 以 ’í and by the suffix 個 kú‘, which usually takes a verb between it and the noun.

• 担刀來割 tan tau lé kweh (köh), cut it with a knife.
• 錫做个 sih tsú‘ kú‘, made of tin.

139. In expressing by (instrumental case), the auxiliary verb peh 撥 precedes the instrumental noun, and the principal verb with or without its regimen follows (m. 彼 pei):—

• 撥拉爺娘責備 peh lá yá niáng tsah bé‘, he was reproved by his parents

• 忒伊一淘去 t’eh í ih dau k’í‘, go with him.
• 同我你跑 tóng ’ngú ’ní pau‘, go with us.
• 替我一淘去 t’í‘ ’ngú ih dau k’í‘, go with me.
• 我忒儂做朋友 ’ngú t’eh nóng tsú‘ páng ’yeu, I will be your friend.

141. As a sign of the vocative, the suffix 呵 á is sometimes used. 老兄阿 lau h’iung á, brother (addressed to strangers as friendly salutation).

142. Case particles in other languages. Prepositions standing before the noun, and terminations making up one word with the root, are used together in the classical languages to express case; and very frequently the suffixes alone. In the modern European languages, suffixes are much less used, prepositions performing the office of case particles. In the Tartar languages, the particles called in other languages prepositions, come after their words, and are therefore called postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique cases, four in number, are formed by suffixes selected from this class of particles. When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure, and may all be used independently as particles. Thus it appears that the Chinese in using separate case particles, some before and some after, the nouns to which they belong, do not depart from the practice common to other races.

143. Premare’s method of illustrating one by one, the words most important in a grammatical view, by numerous examples, is here followed in regard to some commonly used nouns.

• 口 ’k’eu, mouth, an opening. It is only used in combination.
• 口音 ’k’eu yun, speech.
• 口才 ’k’eu dzé, fluency.
• 口是心非 ’k’eu ’zz sing fí, plausible but not sincere.
• 三叉路口 san t’só lú‘ ’k’eu, where three roads meet.
• 口頭言語 ’k’eu deu íen ’nü, colloquial particles.
• 一口土白 ih ’k’eu ’t’ú báh, all he says is in the dialect.
• 門口 mun ’k’eu, opening.
• 海口 ’hé ’k’eu, sea-port.
• 乍浦口嘴 Dzó‘ p’ú‘ ’k’eu tsz‘, Háng-cheú bay.
• 口說無憑 ’k’eu söh m bing, words without foundation.
• 有口無心 ’yeu k’eu m sing, speaking without thinking, mere words.
• 一口咬定 ih ’k’eu ngau ding‘, spoke decisively.

144. 氣 k’í‘.

1. Breath, vapour.

2. Anger.

• 惹氣儂 ’zá k’í‘ nóng‘, provoke you.
• 勿要動氣 veh yau‘ dóng‘ k’í‘ do not be angry.
• 氣殺我 k’í‘ sah ’ngú, provoke me greatly.

3. Manner, expression, meaning.

• 陽氣來咾 yáng k’í‘ lé lau, beautifully ornamented.
• 神氣宛然 zun k’í‘ wén zén, likeness to perfect.
• 勿要客氣 veh yau‘ k’ák k’í‘, do not stand on ceremony.
• 大有福氣 tú‘ ’yeu fóh k’í‘, has great happiness.

145. 心 sing, heart, mind.

• 心拉書上 sing ’lá sû long‘, attend to your book.
• 心裏明白個 sing ’lí ming bák kú‘, has an intelligent mind.
• 摳心挖胆 k’eu sing wah ’tan, mind set on schemes.
• 當心,留心,小心 tong sing, lieu sing, ’siau sing, pay attention.
• 盡心竭力 dzing‘ sing gih lih, do your utmost.
• 兩條心思 ’liáng diau sing sz, double-minded.
• 白費心思 pak fí‘ sing sz, planning in vain.
• 一心一念 ih sing ih nian‘, all intent upon.
• 直心直肚腸 dzuh sing dzuh tú dzáng, honest, sincere.
• 心心主念 sing sing ’tsû nian, resolutely intent on.
• 赤胆忠心 t’suk ’tan tsóng sing, faithful.

146. 手 ’seu, hand, an artisan.

• 上手下手 zong‘ ’seu ’au ’seu, superior and inferior workmen.
• 動手勿得 ’tóng ’seu veh tuh, may not put hand to it.
• 手忙脚亂, ’seu mong kiáh lön, confused and wrong.
• 親手 t’sing ’seu, with his own hand.
• 一手難遮天下目 ih ’seu nan tsó t’íen ’au móh, one hand cannot cover the eyes of all the world.
• 白手求財 pák ’seu gieu dzé, want money without earning it
• 幫手 pong ’seu, assistant.
• 傳手 dzén ’seu, from hand to hand.

147. 分 vun‘, duty, divisions.

• 十分裏一分 seh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, one tenth.
• 名分, 本分 ming vun‘, ’pun vun‘, duties.
• 職分꜄ tsuh vun‘, an office.
• 一生安分꜄ ih sáng ön vun‘, do my duty a whole lifetime.
• 分꜄所當然 vun‘ ’sú tong zén, as in duty bound.

148. 頭 teu, head.

• 唔頭唔腦 m deu m ’nau, without order.
• 頭二百里 teu ní‘ páh ’lí, about 200 Chinese miles.
• 幾許人頭 ’kí hau‘ niun deu? how many men?
• 起頭 ’k’í deu, at the beginning.
• 頭頭是道 teu deu ’zz dau‘, it is all reasonable.

149. 眼 ngan eye, a point, a small hole.

• 一眼勿差 ih ngan veh t’só, quite right.
• 眼睛勿好 ’ngan tsing veh ’hau, his eyes are bad.
• 只得—眼 tseh tuh ih ’ngan, only a very little.
• 眼底無人 ’ngan tí m niun, thinks none so good as he.

150. 目 moh, eye.

151. 底 ’tí, bottom.

• 月底 niöh ’tí, end of the month.
• 年底 níen ’tí, end of the year.
• 私底下 sz ’tí ’au, secretly.
• 底裡 ’tí ’li, at the bottom.
• 底下挽通 ’tí ’au ’wan t’óng, to inform secretly.
• 底面不和 ’tí míen‘ peh ú, heart and looks not agreeing.
• 直到底 dzuk tau‘ ’tí, to the end.
• 脚底下 kiák ’tí ’au, under the feet.

• 東半爿, 東面 tóng pén‘ ban, tóng míen‘, on the eastern side.

The combinations with 裏 ’lí, within, include two other words which here appended, 向, 勢, 面, 邊, 頭, h’iáng‘, sz‘, míen‘, píen, teu.

• Thus, 裏向, 裏面, ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí míen‘, inside.

Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.

Section 4. On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives.

153. Under his head, are included the classifying particles, called by some writers numerals, with weights and measures, and any parts not being themselves full appellative nouns, into which substantives admit of being divided.

Obs. i The distinctive numeral particles applied to different substantives, belonging as they do themselves to that class of words, could not be placed with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet their Syntax is sufficiently unlike that of the substantive to require them to be placed apart.

Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been presented to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his “Letters on the rendering of the name God in Chinese,” Hongkong, 1850. Several useful terms are there introduced, partly from Nordheimer, but a place for the nouns now under discussion is not provided for except under class (4). The classes into which common or nouns not proper are there divided, are—

1. “Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual existence, e.g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment.” Here shape and substance are both included, and the indefinite article can be prefixed in all cases.

2. “Material nouns, e.g. corn, gold, water.” Here matter only is embraced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other words, as “a bushel of corn,” “a handful of gold,” “a cup of water,” “a sceptre of iron.” Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents no name for the former words in these cases, merely saying that the second limits the first in meaning. He considers them all concrete nouns.

3. “Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet express a multitude.”

4. “Abstract nouns or names of qualities or modes of existence, abstracted from the object with which they are in combination.” Numeral particles and nouns of measure and shape must be placed here, although they are thereby associated with a multitude of mental and moral terms, with which they have little in common. Abstract nouns might form two classes distinguished as material and moral.

5. “Relative nouns, e.g. father, king.” Since the second class material nouns furnishes the matter of which the words ‘bushel,’ ‘handful’, ‘cup,’ etc. supply the form, perhaps these auxiliary words should be called formal nouns, and form a sixth class.

154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and part of (4), are embraced in the preceding section; The remainder form the subject of the present. With regard to their use, combined with the numeral, they cover the ground of the article a, an in the class, and of the auxiliary words in the second.

• Thus, a mountain, 一座山 ih zú‘ san.
• Call a man, 告一个人來 kau‘ ih kú‘ niun lé.
• Two measures of rice, 二斗米 ní‘ ’teu ’mí.
• A cup of cold water, 一碗冷水 ih ’wén ’láng ’sz.

Obs. In Hebrew no word like of is necessary, e.g. shébet (constr.) barzel, a sceptre of iron. Lat. virga ferrea.

• 箇 kú‘ (keu‘), of men, fish, cash, dials, collars, and all relative terms.
• 顆 ’k’ú, of pearls.
• 根 kun (root), of candles, hairs, trees, masts, bamboos.
• 管 kwén (pipe), of flutes, pencils.
• 口 ’k’eu (mouth), of coffins, men (as consumers).
• 科 k’ú, of plants, trees, roots, 三科樹 san k’ú zû‘, 3 trees.
• 塊 k’wé‘, of stones, bricks, dollars.
• 件 kíen‘, of garments, affairs, news, things.
• 頭 teu, of men, of cattle (when reckoned by heads).
• 頂 ’ting, of sedan chairs, hats, umbrellas, curtains.
• 朶 ’tú, of single flowers.
• 燈 tung, of candles, lights, 一燈火 ih tung ’hú, a light.
• 堵 ’tú, of walls, 一堵牆 ih ’tú dziáng, a wall.
• 條 tiau, of snakes, dragons, bridges, ropes, roads.
• 把 ’pó (hold in hand); of chairs, knives, fans, wine bowls.
• 本 ’pun (root), of books, account books, plays.
• 匹 p’ih, of horses (隻 is more common.)
• 面 míen, of mirrors, brass and skin gongs.
• 幅 fóh, of pictures, maps.
• 對 fóng, of letters, 一封信 ih fóng sing‘, a letter.
• 文 vun, of cash, (個 is more common).
• 隻 tsáh, of birds, quadrupeds, tables, temples, hands, feet, watches, shoes, clocks, eyes, ears, vessels.
• 盞 ’tsan, of lamps.
• 樁 tsong, of matters.
• 種 ’tsóng, of matters.
• 枝 tsz, of pencils, branches, stalks.
• 座 zú‘, of houses, mountains, pagodas.
• 乘 zung, of carriages.
• 圓 yön, of dollars.
• 樣 yáng‘, of affairs, matters.
• 項 háng‘, of things, matters. Also 星 sing, of things.

Obs. i. The office of these substantive particles is simply indicative. The reason of their application to particular words is custom only, but etymological connection is sometimes traceable as in 封 to close up, 頭 is applied to men only as a suffix.

Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns are here included. They are distinguished in English from material nouns by taking the plural, and admitting a, an, before them.

Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to particular nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A native of Fúh-kien would laugh to hear 隻 tsáh, instead of 枝 tsz, applied to hands and feet. In mandarin 尾 vi‘, is the distinctive particle for fish instead of 箇 kú‘, which is employed in this dialect.

Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are used sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial, semi-literary style of those works only occasionally expands into full conversational idiom. When it does so, they are always found.

157. The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such as are significant, or retain their meaning when translated into English, giving to their substantives, which are either material nouns or are construed as such, limitations of form and quantity.

• Divisions of books.
• 句 kü‘, sentence.
• 節 tsih, verse.
• 大 tá‘, column.
• 行 hong, column.
• 張 tsáng, leaf.
• 頁 yih, a leaf.
• 章 tsáng, section.
• 首 ’seu, ode.
• 篇 p’ien, chapter.
• 本 ’pun, volume.
• 都 pú‘, a whole work.

• Strokes of characters.
• 點 ’tíen ㇔
• 劃 wáh ㇐
• 𥪡 ’zû ㇑
• 剔 t’iuh ㇂
• 撇 p’ih ㇒
• 捺 nah ㇏
• 挑 t’iau ㇀
• 拂 fah ㇓
• 圏 k’iön, small circle. 〇

Obs. These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving directions to a scholar to write the character 受 ’zeu, a teacher would say 一撇, 三黯, 帽下又字 ih p’ih, san tíen, mau‘, ’au ’tí yeu‘, zz‘. The eight strokes given above are all contained in the character 永. Information on this subject is given in Dr. Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.

159. The most common names of vessels of capacity are the following.

Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is contained in them. But if they are construed as independent substantives they all take 隻 as their distinctive particle. Thus we find, 一隻碗, 一碗茶, ih tsáh wén, a cup; ih wén dzó‘, a cup of tea.

160. Of definite measures, the following are in common use.

Obs. 時 zz, hour, and 月 niöh, month, are here omitted, because they usually take 箇 before them. This must be to distinguish them from words similar in sound, or from their own other senses.

161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the forms of plurality, from a pair to a multitude, here follow:—

• 句 kü‘, sentence of words.
• 聯 líen, pair of corresponding sentences of poetry.
• 雙 song, pair of shoes.
• 對 té‘, opposite pair of candles, geese, ih dé‘ kí, pair of fowls.
• 股 ’kú, 2 or 3 in trade; san ’ku k’é, divide between three.
• 排 pá, a pile or raft of timber, row of trees.
• 隊 té‘, a rank of soldiers, ih dé ping.
• 帖 t’ih, parcel of ten pencils, ih t’ih pih.
• 刀 tau, 100 sheets of paper, ih tau ’tsz.
• 炷 tsû, bundle of incense, ih tsû h’iáng.
• 套 t’au‘, coverful of books, ih t’au‘, sû.
• 串 t’sén chain of 1,000 cash.
• 羣 kiün, flock of birds, beasts, ih giün ’tiau.
• 副 fú‘, suit of clothes, ih fú‘ í zong.
• 行 hong, rows of birds flying, trees.

162. From the list here given, it appears that there are at least 130 of these imperfect substantives, almost all in common use. They admit of a fourfold division.

I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of appellative nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes, there are upwards of 30. A few examples are appended.

• 一口棺材 ih ’k’eu kwén zé, a coffin.
• 造一條橋 ’zau ih diau giau, build a bridge.
• 殺一隻雞 sah ih tsáh kí, kill a fowl.
• 一枝大筆 ih tsz dú‘ pih, a large pencil.

Obs. i. At first sight, these words look like a capricious superfluity of articles, arising merely from a fondness for multiplying words. They appear appropriate in a language, where there is so much arbitrary classification, and so little exhibition of the power of generalizing by means of deep and comprehensive principles. Here are thirty words made use of, where one would be sufficient. It should however be remembered, that when used as adverbs there is great clearness given to the conception they express, and that they diminish the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.

Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and the noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other particles that are the subject of this chapter.

II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied to material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from number, there are about 40. E.g.

• 一張紙頭 ih tsáng ’tsz deu, a sheet of paper.
• 二十担泥 ní‘ seh tan‘ ní, twenty loads of earth.
• 九層塔 ’kieu zung t’áh, pagoda of nine stories.

Obs. i. When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of the distinctive particles precedes.

• 一个面孔 ih ku‘ míen‘ ’k’óng, one face.
• 一隻節頭 ih tsáh tsih deu, one finger.

Obs. ii. 點, 眼, tíen, ngan, are applied to any material noun in the sense of a little of. Ih 一 precedes them.

III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns, form the most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives. Upwards of 50 are here collected. They take no particle after the number preceding, and must therefore be classed as imperfect substantives. Thus the construction in the following examples is similar.

IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class of qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of words in the four classes of particles may be seen in the following examples.

• 一隻羊 ih tsáh yáng, a sheep.
• 一塊羊肉 ih k’wé yáng nióh, a piece of mutton.
• 一斤羊肉 ih kiun yáng nióh, catty of mutton.
• 一羣羊 ih giün yáng, flock of sheep.

• 來過兩次 lé kú‘ ’liáng t’sz‘, I have come twice.
• 去之一燙 k’í‘ tsz ih t’ong, having gone once.
• 要讀兩囘 yau‘ dóh ’liáng wé‘, you must read it twice.
• 走兩轉就定 ’tseu ’liáng ’tsén dzieu‘ ding‘, after going round twice he stops.
• 打三十記 ’táng san seh kí‘, received 30 blows.

Section 5. On the Adjective. 呆 虛 字.

164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office of adjectives is “to describe the attributes and appearance of things.” “In apposition with nouns, they express their qualities,” (與實字相加, 以形容實字如何樣.) “Some adjectives consist of two words which are inseparable. Thus, repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole character, frequently occurs.” (有兩字折不開者, 如雙聲, 疊韻, 疊字等類.) “There are not more than a few tens of characters that are adjectives.”

Antithesis. 165. In substantives, the principle of combination came prominently to view, and it will be found to belong though not so extensively, to the other parts of speech. That of antithesis belongs especially to adjectives. Most of the single-worded adjectives in daily use will illustrate this.

• 輕重 k’iung, ’dzóng, light, heavy.
• 大小 tú‘, ’siau, great, little.
• 多少 tú ’sau, many, few.
• 長短 dzáng, ’tön, long, short.
• 厚薄 ’heu, póh, thick, thin.
• 闊狹 k’weh, hah, broad, narrow.
• 高低 kau, tí, high, low.
• 深淺 sun, ’t’síen, deep, shallow.
• 冷暖 ’láng, ’nön, cold, warm.
• 清濁 t’sing, dzóh, clear, muddy.
• 快慢 k’wá‘, man‘, quick, slow.
• 好孬 (c) ’hau, k’ieu, good, bad (k’ieu = 歹 ’té).
• 淡濃 tan‘, nióng, pale, deep.
• 早晚 ’tsau, an‘, early, late.
• 硬軟 ngáng‘, ’niön, hard, soft.
• 曲直 k’ióh, dzuh, crooked, straight.
• 正斜 tsung‘, siá, right, bent.
• 壯瘦 tsong‘, seu‘, fat, lean.
• 生熟 sáng, zóh, ripe, unripe.
• 鬆緊 sóng, kiun, loose, tight.
• 粗細 t’sú, sí‘, coarse, fine.
• 新舊 sing, ’kieu, new, old.
• 稀綳 (c) h’í, ’máng, few, crowded (máng = 密 mih).
• 貴强 (c) kü‘, giáng, dear, cheap (giáng = 賤 dzíen).
• 眞假 tsun, ’ká, true, false.
• 亮暗 liáng‘, en‘, light, dark.

Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (c) are not used in literary compositions. There is no class of words more extensively spread through all Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these adjectives.