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A System of Logic: Ratiocinative and Inductive, 7th Edition, Vol. II

Chapter 1: A SYSTEM OF LOGIC RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE
By John Stuart Mill
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The work examines methods of induction and the classification of natural laws, distinguishing ultimate laws that correspond to distinct sensory qualities from derivative laws resolvable into more general principles. It discusses the legitimate use and necessity of hypotheses, conditions under which hypotheses become inductive, and limits to explaining phenomena entirely by single laws. Topics include progressive effects and continued causal action, the nature and reliability of empirical laws dependent on collocations, and techniques for detecting and eliminating chance via probability theory. It also treats extension of derivative laws to adjacent cases and the role and limits of analogical reasoning in supporting inductive conclusions.

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Title: A System of Logic: Ratiocinative and Inductive, 7th Edition, Vol. II

Author: John Stuart Mill

Release date: February 27, 2011 [eBook #35421]
Most recently updated: January 7, 2021

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SYSTEM OF LOGIC: RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE, 7TH EDITION, VOL. II ***

A
SYSTEM OF LOGIC

RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE

VOL. II.

A
SYSTEM OF LOGIC

RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE

BEING A CONNECTED VIEW OF THE
PRINCIPLES OF EVIDENCE
AND THE
METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
BY
JOHN STUART MILL
IN TWO VOLUMES

VOL. II.
SEVENTH EDITION

LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER

MDCCCLXVIII

CONTENTS
OF
THE SECOND VOLUME.

BOOK III.
ON INDUCTION.—(Continued.)
Chapter XIV. Of the Limits to the Explanation of Laws of Nature; and of Hypotheses.
§ 1.Can all the sequences in nature be resolvable into one law?3
2.Ultimate laws cannot be less numerous than the distinguishable feelings of our nature4
3.In what sense ultimate facts can be explained7
4.The proper use of scientific hypotheses8
5.Their indispensableness16
6.Legitimate, how distinguished from illegitimate hypotheses18
7.Some inquiries apparently hypothetical are really inductive25
Chapter XV. Of Progressive Effects; and of the Continued Action of Causes.
§ 1.How a progressive effect results from the simple continuance of the cause29
2.—and from the progressiveness of the cause33
3.Derivative laws generated from a single ultimate law36
Chapter XVI. Of Empirical Laws.
§ 1.Definition of an empirical law38
2.Derivative laws commonly depend on collocations39
3.The collocations of the permanent causes are not reducible to any law41
4.Hence empirical laws cannot be relied on beyond the limits of actual experience41
5.Generalizations which rest only on the Method of Agreement can only be received as empirical laws43
6.Signs from which an observed uniformity of sequence may be presumed to be resolvable44
7.Two kinds of empirical laws47
Chapter XVII. Of Chance, and its Elimination.
§ 1.The proof of empirical laws depends on the theory of chance49
2.Chance defined and characterized50
3.The elimination of chance55
4.Discovery of residual phenomena by eliminating chance57
5.The doctrine of chances59
Chapter XVIII. Of the Calculation of Chances.
§ 1.Foundation of the doctrine of chances, as taught by mathematics61
2.The doctrine tenable63
3.On what foundation it really rests64
4.Its ultimate dependence on causation68
5.Theorem of the doctrine of chances which relates to the cause of a given event72
6.How applicable to the elimination of chance74
Chapter XIX. Of the Extension of Derivative Laws to Adjacent Cases.
§ 1.Derivative laws, when not casual, are almost always contingent on collocations78
2.On what grounds they can be extended to cases beyond the bounds of actual experience80
3.Those cases must be adjacent cases82
Chapter XX. Of Analogy.
§ 1.Various senses of the word analogy86
2.Nature of analogical evidence87
3.On what circumstances its value depends91
Chapter XXI. Of the Evidence of the Law of Universal Causation.
§ 1.The law of causality does not rest on an instinct95
2.But on an induction by simple enumeration100
3.In what cases such induction is allowable102
4.The universal prevalence of the law of causality, on what grounds admissible105
Chapter XXII. Of Uniformities of Coexistence not dependent on Causation.
§ 1.Uniformities of coexistence which result from laws of sequence110
2.The properties of Kinds are uniformities of coexistence111
3.Some are derivative, others ultimate113
4.No universal axiom of coexistence114
5.The evidence of uniformities of coexistence, how measured117
6.When derivative, their evidence is that of empirical laws117
7.So also when ultimate119
8.The evidence stronger in proportion as the law is more general120
9.Every distinct Kind must be examined121
Chapter XXIII. Of Approximate Generalizations, and Probable Evidence.
§ 1.The inferences called probable, rest on approximate generalizations124
2.Approximate generalizations less useful in science than in life124
3.In what cases they may be resorted to126
4.In what manner proved127
5.With what precautions employed130
6.The two modes of combining probabilities131
7.How approximate generalizations may be converted into accurate generalizations equivalent to them136
Chapter XXIV. Of the Remaining Laws of Nature.
§ 1.Propositions which assert mere existence139
2.Resemblance, considered as a subject of science141
3.The axioms and theorems of mathematics comprise the principal laws of resemblance143
4.—and those of order in place, and rest on induction by simple enumeration145
5.The propositions of arithmetic affirm the modes of formation of some given number146
6.Those of algebra affirm the equivalence of different modes of formation of numbers generally151
7.The propositions of geometry are laws of outward nature154
8.Why geometry is almost entirely deductive156
9.Function of mathematical truths in the other sciences, and limits of that function158
Chapter XXV. Of the Grounds of Disbelief.
§ 1.Improbability and impossibility161
2.Examination of Hume's doctrine of miracles162
3.The degrees of improbability correspond to differences in the nature of the generalization with which an assertion conflicts166
4.A fact is not incredible because the chances are against it170
5.Are coincidences less credible than other facts?172
6.An opinion of Laplace examined175
BOOK IV.
OF OPERATIONS SUBSIDIARY TO INDUCTION.
Chapter I. Of Observation and Description.
§ 1.Observation, how far a subject of logic183
2.A great part of what seems observation is really inference184
3.The description of an observation affirms more than is contained in the observation187
4.—namely an agreement among phenomena; and the comparison of phenomena to ascertain such agreements is a preliminary to induction190
Chapter II. Of Abstraction, or the Formation of Conceptions.
§ 1.The comparison which is a preliminary to induction implies general conceptions193
2.—but these need not be pre-existent194
3.A general conception, originally the result of a comparison, becomes itself the type of comparison198
4.What is meant by appropriate conceptions200
5.—and by clear conceptions203
6.Further illustration of the subject205
Chapter III. Of Naming, as subsidiary to Induction.
§ 1.The fundamental property of names as an instrument of thought209
2.Names are not indispensable to induction210
3.In what manner subservient to it211
4.General names not a mere contrivance to economize the use of language213
Chapter IV. Of the Requisites of a Philosophical Language, and the Principles of Definition.
§ 1.First requisite of philosophical language, a steady and determinate meaning for every general name215
2.Names in common use have often a loose connotation215
3.—which the logician should fix, with as little alteration as possible218
4.Why definition is often a question not of words but of things220
5.How the logician should deal with the transitive applications of words224
6.Evil consequences of casting off any portion of the customary connotation of words229
Chapter V. On the Natural History of the Variations in the Meaning of Terms.
§ 1.How circumstances originally accidental become incorporated into the meaning of words236
2.—and sometimes become the whole meaning238
3.Tendency of words to become generalized240
4.—and to become specialized243
Chapter VI. The Principles of a Philosophical Language further considered.
§ 1.Second requisite of philosophical language, a name for every important meaning248
2.—viz. first, an accurate descriptive terminology248
3.—secondly, a name for each of the more important results of scientific abstraction252
4.—thirdly, a nomenclature, or system of the names of Kinds255
5.Peculiar nature of the connotation of names which belong to a nomenclature257
6.In what cases language may, and may not, be used mechanically259
Chapter VII. Of Classification, as subsidiary to Induction.
§ 1.Classification as here treated of, wherein different from the classification implied in naming266
2.Theory of natural groups267
3.Are natural groups given by type, or by definition?271
4.Kinds are natural groups274
5.How the names of Kinds should be constructed280
Chapter VIII. Of Classification by Series.
§ 1.Natural groups should be arranged in a natural series284
2.The arrangement should follow the degrees of the main phenomenon285
3.—which implies the assumption of a type-species287
4.How the divisions of the series should be determined288
5.Zoology affords the completest type of scientific classification289
BOOK V.
ON FALLACIES.
Chapter I. Of Fallacies in General.
§ 1.Theory of fallacies a necessary part of logic295
2.Casual mistakes are not fallacies297
3.The moral sources of erroneous opinion, how related to the intellectual297
Chapter II. Classification of Fallacies.
§ 1.On what criteria a classification of fallacies should be grounded301
2.The five classes of fallacies302
3.The reference of a fallacy to one or another class is sometimes arbitrary305
Chapter III. Fallacies of Simple Inspection, or à priori Fallacies.
§ 1.Character of this class of Fallacies309
2.Natural prejudice of mistaking subjective laws for objective, exemplified in popular superstitions310
3.Natural prejudices, that things which we think of together must exist together, and that what is inconceivable must be false314
4.Natural prejudice, of ascribing objective existence to abstractions321
5.Fallacy of the Sufficient Reason322
6.Natural prejudice, that the differences in nature correspond to the distinctions in language325
7.Prejudice, that a phenomenon cannot have more than one cause329
8.Prejudice, that the conditions of a phenomenon must resemble the phenomenon332
Chapter IV. Fallacies of Observation.
§ 1.Non-observation, and Mal-observation341
2.Non-observation of instances, and non-observation of circumstances341
3.Examples of the former342
4.—and of the latter347
5.Mal-observation characterized and exemplified352
Chapter V. Fallacies of Generalization.
§ 1.Character of the class356
2.Certain kinds of generalization must always be groundless356
3.Attempts to resolve phenomena radically different into the same357
4.Fallacy of mistaking empirical for causal laws359
5.Post hoc, ergo propter hoc; and the deductive fallacy corresponding to it364
6.Fallacy of False Analogies366
7.Function of metaphors in reasoning373
8.How fallacies of generalization grow out of bad classification375
Chapter VI. Fallacies of Ratiocination.
§ 1.Introductory Remarks377
2.Fallacies in the conversion and æquipollency of propositions377
3.Fallacies in the syllogistic process379
4.Fallacy of changing the premises379
Chapter VII. Fallacies of Confusion.
§ 1.Fallacy of Ambiguous Terms384
2.Fallacy of Petitio Principii396
3.Fallacy of Ignoratio Elenchi405
BOOK VI.
ON THE LOGIC OF THE MORAL SCIENCES.
Chapter I. Introductory Remarks.
§ 1.The backward state of the Moral Sciences can only be remedied by applying to them the methods of Physical Science, duly extended and generalized413
2.How far this can be attempted in the present work415
Chapter II. Of Liberty and Necessity.
§ 1.Are human actions subject to the law of causality?417
2.The doctrine commonly called Philosophical Necessity, in what sense true418
3.Inappropriateness and pernicious effect of the term Necessity420
4.A motive not always the anticipation of a pleasure or a pain424
Chapter III. That there is, or may be, a Science of Human Nature.
§ 1.There may be sciences which are not exact sciences426
2.To what scientific type the Science of Human Nature corresponds429
Chapter IV. Of the Laws of Mind.
§ 1.What is meant by Laws of Mind432
2.Is there a science of Psychology?433
3.The principal investigations of Psychology characterized435
4.Relation of mental facts to physical conditions440
Chapter V. Of Ethology, or the Science of the Formation of Character.
§ 1.The Empirical Laws of Human Nature445
2.—are merely approximate generalizations. The universal laws are those of the formation of character447
3.The laws of the formation of character cannot be ascertained by observation and experiment449
4.—but must be studied deductively454
5.The Principles of Ethology are the axiomata media of mental science455
6.Ethology characterized459
Chapter VI. General Considerations on the Social Science.
§ 1.Are Social Phenomena a subject of Science?461
2.Of what nature the Social Science must be463
Chapter VII. Of the Chemical, or Experimental, Method in the Social Science.
§ 1.Characters of the mode of thinking which deduces political doctrines from specific experience466
2.In the Social Science experiments are impossible468
3.—the Method of Difference inapplicable469
4.—and the Methods of Agreement, and of Concomitant Variations, inconclusive471
5.The Method of Residues also inconclusive, and presupposes Deduction472
Chapter VIII. Of the Geometrical, or Abstract Method.
§ 1.Characters of this mode of thinking476
2.Examples of the Geometrical Method478
3.The interest-philosophy of the Bentham school479
Chapter IX. Of the Physical, or Concrete Deductive Method.
§ 1.The Direct and Inverse Deductive Methods486
2.Difficulties of the Direct Deductive Method in the Social Science489
3.To what extent the different branches of sociological speculation can be studied apart. Political Economy characterized492
4.Political Ethology, or the science of national character497
5.The Empirical Laws of the Social Science500
6.The Verification of the Social Science502
Chapter X. Of the Inverse Deductive, or Historical Method.
§ 1.Distinction between the general Science of Society, and special sociological inquiries506
2.What is meant by a State of Society?506
3.The Progressiveness of Man and Society508
4.The laws of the succession of states of society can only be ascertained by the Inverse Deductive Method511
5.Social Statics, or the science of the Coexistences of Social Phenomena513
6.Social Dynamics, or the science of the Successions of Social Phenomena521
7.Outlines of the Historical Method522
8.Future prospects of Sociological Inquiry525
Chapter XI. Additional Elucidations of the Science of History.
§ 1.The subjection of historical facts to uniform laws is verified by statistics529
2.—does not imply the insignificance of moral causes532
3.—nor the inefficacy of the characters of individuals and of the acts of governments535
4.The historical importance of eminent men and of the policy of governments illustrated540
Chapter XII. Of the Logic of Practice, or Art; including Morality and Policy.
§ 1.Morality not a science, but an Art544
2.Relation between rules of art and the theorems of the corresponding science544
3.What is the proper function of rules of art?546
4.Art cannot be Deductive548
5.Every Art consists of truths of Science, arranged in the order suitable for some practical use549
6.Teleology, or the Doctrine of Ends550
7.Necessity of an ultimate standard, or first principle of Teleology552
8.Conclusion554