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Animal Life and Intelligence

Chapter 4: LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
By C. Lloyd Morgan
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Science - Biology

About This Book

The work surveys animal physiology, development, and behavior to infer mental processes in nonhuman animals, opening with organic evolution and the physical bases of life such as respiration and nutrition. It examines reproduction, growth, variation, and heredity, considers mechanisms proposed for inheritance, and explains natural selection, isolation, and adaptation including mimicry and protective resemblance. Attention is given to the contrast between instinct, habit, and learned intelligence, with examples illustrating gradations of mental capacity. Human reasoning and moral agency are treated as distinct yet still subject to underlying biological laws, and scientific evidence is combined with philosophical analysis throughout.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
THE NATURE OF ANIMAL LIFE.

The characteristics of animals 2
The relation of animals to food-stuffs 15
The relation of animals to the atmosphere 15
The relation of animals to energy 16

CHAPTER II.
THE PROCESS OF LIFE.

Illustration from respiration 21
Illustration from nutrition 25
The utilization of the materials incorporated 27
The analogy of a gas-engine. Explosive metabolism 30

CHAPTER III.
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT.

Reproduction in the protozoa 37
Fission in the metazoa 41
The regeneration of lost parts 41
Reproduction by budding 42
Sexual reproduction 42
Illustration of development 51
Parental sacrifice 56
The law of increase 58

CHAPTER IV.
VARIATION AND NATURAL SELECTION.

The law of persistence 61
The occurrence of variations 63
Application of the law of increase 76
Natural selection 77
Elimination and selection 79
Modes of natural elimination illustrated 80
Protective resemblance and mimicry 82
Selection proper illustrated 93
The effects of natural selection 95
Isolation or segregation 99
Its modes, geographical, preferential and physiological 99
Its effects 108
Utility of specific characters 110
Variations in the intensity of the struggle for existence 112
Convergence of characters 117
Modes of adaptation: Progress 119
Evolution and Revolution 120

CHAPTER V.
HEREDITY AND THE ORIGIN OF VARIATIONS.

Heredity in the protozoa 123
Regeneration of lost parts 124
Sexual reproduction and heredity 129
The problem of hen and egg 130
Reproductive continuity 131
Pangenesis 131
Modified pangenesis 134
Continuity of germ-plasm 138
Cellular continuity with differentiation 142
The inheritance or non-inheritance of acquired characters 146
Origin of variations on the latter view 149
Hypothesis of organic combination 150
The extrusion of the second polar cell 153
The protozoan origin of variations 156
How can the body influence the germ? 159
Is there sufficient evidence that it does? 162
Summary and conclusion 175

CHAPTER VI.
ORGANIC EVOLUTION.

The diversity of animal life 177
The evolution theory 181
Natural selection: not to be used as a magic formula 183
Panmixia and disuse 189
Sexual selection or preferential mating 197
Use and disuse 209
The nature of variations 216
The inheritance of variations 223
The origin of variations 231
Summary and conclusion 241

CHAPTER VII.
THE SENSES OF ANIMALS.

The primary object of sensation 243
Organic sensations and the muscular sense 244
Touch 245
The temperature-sense 249
Taste 250
Smell 257
Hearing 261
Sense of rotation or acceleration 269
Sight 273
Restatement of theory of colour-vision 278
Variation in the limits of colour-vision 281
The four types of "visual" organs 293
Problematical senses 294
Permanent possibilities of sensation 298

CHAPTER VIII.
MENTAL PROCESSES IN MAN.

The physiological aspect 302
The psychological aspect 304
Sensations: their localization, etc. 306
Perceptual construction 312
Conceptual analysis 321
Inferences perceptual and conceptual 328
Intelligence and reason 330

CHAPTER IX.
MENTAL PROCESSES IN ANIMALS: THEIR POWERS OF PERCEPTION AND INTELLIGENCE.

The two factors in phenomena 331
The basis in organic evolution 336
Perceptual construction in mammalia 338
Can animals analyze their constructs? 347
The generic difference between the minds of man and brute 350
Perceptual construction in other vertebrates 350
"Understanding" of words 354
Perceptual construction in the invertebrates 356
"The psychic life of micro-organisms" 360
The inferences of animals 361
Intelligent not rational 365
Use of words defined 372
Language and analysis 374

CHAPTER X.
THE FEELINGS OF ANIMALS: THEIR APPETENCES AND EMOTIONS.

Pleasure and pain: their organic limits 379
Their directive value 380
An emotion exemplified 382
Sensitiveness and sensibility 385
The expression of the emotions 385
The postponement of action 385
The three orders of emotion 390
The capacities of animals for pleasure and pain 391
Sense-feelings 393
Some emotions of animals 395
The necessity for caution in interpretation 399
The sense of beauty 407
Can animals be moral? 413
Conclusion 414

CHAPTER XI.
ANIMAL ACTIVITIES: HABIT AND INSTINCT.

The nature of animal activities 415
The outer and inner aspect 417
The inherited organization 419
Habitual activities 420
Instinctive activities 422
Innate capacity 426
Blind prevision 429
Consciousness and instinct 432
Mr. Romanes's treatment of instinct 434
Lapsed intelligence and modern views on heredity 435
Three factors in the origin of instinctive activities 447
The emotional basis of instinct 449
The influence of intelligence on instinct 452
The characteristics of intelligent activities 456
The place of volition 459
Perceptual and conceptual volition 460
Consciousness and consentience 461
Classification of activities 462

CHAPTER XII.
MENTAL EVOLUTION.

Is mind evolved from matter? 464
Kinesis and metakinesis 467
Monistic assumptions 470
The nature of ejects 476
The universe as eject 478
Metakinetic environment of mind 481
Conceptual ideas not subject to natural selection 483
Elimination through incongruity 486
Interneural evolution 490
Interpretations of nature 492
Can fetishism have had a natural genesis? 493
The origin of interneural variations 496
Are acquired variations inherited? 497
Summary and conclusion 501

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

  FIG. PAGE
     
  Kentish Plover with Eggs and Young Frontispiece
1. Spiracles and Air-tubes of Cockroach 3
2. Gills of Mussel 4
3. A Cell greatly magnified 11
4. Amœba 12
5. Egg-cell and Sperm-cell 13
6. Diagram of Circulation 23
7. Protozoa 38
8. Hydra Virides 43
9. Aurelia: Life-cycle 45
10. Liver-Fluke—Embryonic Stages 47
11. Diagram of Development 51
12. Wing of Bat (Pipistrelle) 64
13. Variations of the Noctule 67
14. Variations of the Long-eared Bat 68
15. Variations of the Pipistrelle 69
16. Variations of the Whiskered Bat 70
17. Variations adjusted to the Standard of the Noctule 73
18. Caterpillar of a Moth on an Oak Spray 85
19. Locust resembling a Leaf 86
20. Mimicry of Bees by Flies 91
21. Egg and Hen 141
22. Stag-Beetles 180
23. Tactile Corpuscules 247
24. Touch-hair of Insect 248
25. Taste-buds of Rabbit 250
26. Antennule of Crayfish 259
27. Diagram of Ear 263
28. Tail of Mysis 266
29. Leg of Grasshopper 266
30. Diagram of Semicircular Canals 270
31. The Human Eye 274
32. Retina of the Eye 274
33. Variation in the Limits of Colour-vision 281
34. Pineal Eye 288
35. Skull of Melanerpeton 288
36. Eyes and Eyelets of Bee 289
37. Eye of Fly 290
38. Diagram of Mosaic Vision 291
39. Direction-retina 295
40. Antennary Structures of Hymenoptera 297