Celtic art in Pagan and Christian times

The leading characteristics of Celtic art of the Christian period are as follows:—

There are in the world two distinct schools of decorative art, one which entirely ignores the shape of the surface to be ornamented, and the other which allows the contour of the margin to influence the whole design. Japanese art belongs to the first of these, and Celtic art to the second. In the Irish illuminated MSS. the rectangular shape of the page determines the setting-out of the design, which is universally enclosed within a rectangular margin composed of lines of various thicknesses, or within an ornamental panelled frame. The only exception is in the case of the initial pages of the Four Gospels, where the margin is incomplete, so as to allow the extremities of the letters to project more nearly to the edge of the page. This prominence given to the margin often greatly influences the designs within it, more especially the key-patterns with diagonal setting-out lines. In sculptured stonework either roll-mouldings or flat bands form the margin, and in metalwork the margins are raised and the panels sunk.

The panels within the margin are generally rectangular, but sometimes they are circular, annular, segmental, triangular, etc. The ornament in adjoining panels is seldom of a similar kind, and the patterns are often arranged on the principle of chequerwork, so that if there is a panel of interlaced-work at the left-hand upper corner of the page of a MS., and a panel of key-pattern at the left-hand lower corner, the order will be reversed on the opposite side of the page, and the key-pattern will be at the right-hand upper corner and the interlaced-work at the right-hand lower corner.

The diagonal setting-out lines are chiefly confined to the key-patterns, and, as we shall see subsequently, are the origin of the peculiar form of Celtic key-pattern which was developed from the Greek fret.

The various motives that have been specified—namely, interlaced-work, step-patterns, key-patterns, spirals, and zoömorphs—are not always found in combination, except in the MSS., sculptured stones, and metalwork of the best period. The step-patterns are, as a rule, only found in the early MSS. and on the enamelled settings of metalwork. Foliage is a distinctly non-Celtic element, and wherever it occurs it is a proof of Anglian influence from Northumbria. As the decadence of Celtic art set in the spirals disappeared first, and then the key-patterns, leaving only interlaced-work and zoömorphs, which survived even after the Norman conquest. Key-patterns survived in a debased form in the architectural details of the churches of the twelfth century in Ireland, but not in Scotland or Wales.

By the geometrical perfection of the Celtic ornament is meant that there are hardly ever any mistakes in the setting-out and complete execution of the designs. Thus in the interlaced-work every cord laps under and over with unfailing regularity (never over two or under two), and all the cords are joined up so as not to leave any loose ends. All the details of the spiralwork are executed with the minutest care, and there is never a broken line or pseudo-spiral. In the zoömorphic designs the beasts are all provided with the proper number of limbs and are complete in every respect down to the smallest detail.

The inferiority of the figure drawing in Christian Celtic art to the ornament will be dealt with subsequently in its proper place.

We will now proceed to examine in detail the different motives made use of in the Celtic art of the Christian period in Great Britain.

INTERLACED-WORK

The interlaced ornament used in Celtic art may be divided into the following classes:—

• (1) Regular plaitwork, without any breaks.
• (2) Broken plaitwork, with breaks made in an irregular way.
• (3) Knotwork.
• (4) Circular knotwork.
• (5) Triangular knotwork.
• (6) Ringwork or chainwork.

Interlaced-work is the predominant motive of the Celtic style of the Christian period. It lasted longer in time than any other motive, and its geographical distribution extends over a larger area. It is very seldom that one motive is used by itself for the decoration of a stone monument, metal object, or page of a MS.; but where this is the case the motive chosen is invariably interlaced-work, and not a key-pattern, spiral, or zoömorph. As instances of sculptured monuments decorated entirely with interlaced-work we have the cross at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire, and the cross-shaft at St. Neot, Cornwall.

The evolution of knotwork from plaitwork cannot better be studied anywhere than in the decoration of the Welsh crosses. Let us now endeavour to trace the various stages in the process by which the higher forms of Celtic interlaced-work were arrived at.

In Egyptian, Greek, and Roman decorative art the only kind of interlaced-work is the plait, without any modification whatever; and the man who discovered how to devise new patterns from a simple plait by making what I term breaks laid the foundation of all the wonderfully complicated and truly bewildering forms of interlaced ornament found in such a masterpiece of the art of illumination as the Book of Kells in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. Although we do not know who made this discovery of how to make breaks in a plait, we know pretty nearly when it was made. In the decoration of the mosaic pavements in Great Britain belonging to the period of the Roman occupation, no instance, as far as I can ascertain, exists of the introduction of a break in a plait; nor is there any break in the plaitwork on the marble screen and the capitals of the columns of the ciborium in the Church of San Clemente at Rome (which are dated by R. Cattaneo[446] between A.D. 514 and 523). In the eighth century, however, there are several examples with well-authenticated dates of the use of true knotwork (as distinguished from plaitwork) in the decoration of churches in Italy; namely, on the ciborium of San Giorgio at Valpolicella[447] (A.D. 712); on the Baptistery of Calistus at Cividale[448] (A.D. 737); and on the jambs of the doorway of the Chapel of San Zeno in the Church of San Prassede at Rome[449] (A.D. 772-795).

It would appear, then, that the transition from plaitwork to knotwork took place between the Lombard conquest of Italy under Alboin in A.D. 563, and the extinction of the Lombard monarchy by Charlemagne in A.D. 774; possibly during the reigns of Luitprand (A.D. 712-736) and Rachis (A.D. 744): for the name of the former king is mentioned in the inscriptions on the Baptistery at Cividale and the ciborium of San Giorgio at Valpolicella, and the latter on the altar at Cividale.

I now propose to explain how plaitwork is set out, and the method of making breaks in it. When it is required to fill in a rectangular panel with a plait the four sides of the panel are divided up into equal parts (except at the ends, where half a division is left), and the points thus found are joined, so as to form a network of diagonal lines. The plait is then drawn over these lines, in the manner shown on the accompanying diagram. The setting-out lines ought really to be double so as to define the width of the band composing the plait, but they are drawn single on the diagram in order to simplify the explanation.

If now we desire to make a break in the plait any two of the cords are cut asunder at the point where they cross each other, leaving four loose ends A, B, C, D. To make a break the loose ends are joined together in pairs. This can be done in two ways only: (1) A can be joined to C and D to B, forming a vertical break; or (2) A can be joined to D and C to B, forming a horizontal break. The decorative effect of the plait is thus entirely altered by running two of the meshes between the cords into one. By continuing the process all the knots most commonly used in Celtic decorative art may be derived from a simple plait.

Let us proceed to trace the process of the evolution of knotwork out of plaitwork by actual instances taken from the Welsh crosses. We have, to start with, good examples of plaits of four, six, and ten cords[451] without any breaks at Nevern, Pembrokeshire; and Llantwit Major, and Margam, Glamorganshire. Next, plaits with a single break only are to be seen at Carew, Pembrokeshire, and Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire; then plaits with several breaks, made quite regardless of symmetry or order, at Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire; and, lastly, breaks made at regular intervals, at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. When the breaks are made symmetrically at regular intervals, and brought sufficiently near together, the plait ceases to be the most prominent feature in the design, and in its place we get a pattern composed entirely of what (for want of a better name) are called knots. On some of the Welsh crosses (as at Carew and Nevern, Pembrokeshire), however, the breaks are made with sufficient regularity and proximity to produce knots, and yet the knots themselves are not symmetrically placed. The result is a class of interlaced-work, intermediate between plaitwork with irregular breaks and knotwork. The same kind of thing is to be seen on the crosses at Coppleston, Devonshire; and St. Neot, Cornwall.

If two horizontal breaks and two vertical breaks are made next to each other in a plait, a space in the shape of a cross is produced. A large number of the interlaced patterns used in Celtic decorative art are derived from a plait by making cruciform breaks at regular intervals. There are examples of this in Wales, at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire; Llanbadarn Fawr, Cardiganshire; and Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire. It is not unlikely that symbolism had something to do with the frequent use of the cruciform break.

There are eight elementary knots which form the basis of nearly all the interlaced patterns in Celtic decorative art, with the exception of those already described. Two of the elementary knots are derived from a three-cord plait, and the remaining six from a four-cord plait.

Knot No. 1 is derived from a three-cord plait by making horizontal breaks on one side of the plait only, and No. 2 by making horizontal breaks alternately on one side and the other.

Knot No. 3 is derived from a four-cord plait by making horizontal breaks in the middle of the plait.

Knot No. 4 is derived from No. 3 by making a horizontal break at A; and No. 5 from No. 4 by making a vertical break at B and C.

Knot No. 6 is derived from a four-cord plait by making horizontal breaks in the middle of the plait, in the same way as in the case of knot No. 3, but closer together.

Knot No. 7 is derived from No. 6 by making a vertical break at B; and No. 8 from No. 6 by making vertical breaks at B and C.

If a series of knots repeated in a single row can be derived from a plait of n bands, a series of the same knots repeated in a double row can be derived from a plait of 2n bands. Thus a pattern composed of knot No. 1 arranged in a double row would be derived from a plait of six cords.

Knots like Nos. 3 and 4, which are longer than they are broad, can be placed either horizontally or vertically. Thus No. 3 placed with its longer axis vertical can be derived from a four-cord plait, but if placed horizontally it would be derived from a six-cord plait.

Knot No. 2 does not occur on the Welsh crosses, and No. 1 only in a double row, as at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. This pattern is derived from a six-cord plait by making horizontal breaks in the two edges of the plait, and vertical breaks in the middle, the stages being shown on the annexed diagram.

Knot No. 3, in a single row placed with its longer axis vertical, occurs at Llandough, Glamorganshire, and, in a single row placed the other way, at Margam, Glamorganshire.

Examples of the two knots, Nos. 4 and 5, which are derived from No. 3, are to be seen at Baglan, Glamorganshire, and Penally, Pembrokeshire.

Knot No. 6, in a single row, occurs at Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire, and its second derivative, No. 8, at Llantwit Major, and also at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. Its first derivative, No. 7, is only used in a double row on the Welsh crosses, as at Silian and Maes Mynach, Cardiganshire, and at Penally, Pembrokeshire, where the knots have an extra spiral twist. The direction of the twist of the spirally bent cord is the same in both the right-hand and left-hand vertical row of knots, although the positions of the knots are different. The more usual arrangement is to make the cords twist in opposite directions, as on the annexed diagram, in which the evolution of the pattern is shown. (Page 271.)

The clearest proof that the spiral knot No. 7 was developed from plaitwork in the manner explained is that on stones at Llangenydd, Glamorganshire; Whithorn, Wigtownshire; Abercorn, Linlithgowshire; and Aycliffe, Co. Durham; the successive stages of development can be easily traced.

I have coined the term circular knotwork to describe a particular class of interlaced-work, in which the circular curves made by the cords give the pattern its distinctive appearance. The best example of circular knotwork in any of the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. occurs on one of the ornamental cross-pages of the Book of Durrow.[452] Circular knotwork is not used in the decoration of the Irish ecclesiastical metalwork, probably because it is only suitable for application to larger surfaces than are to be found on comparatively small metal objects. Circular knotwork is characteristic of the Irish and Scottish sculptured monuments of the best period; it is unknown in Cornwall and the Isle of Man and there is only one instance of its occurrence in Wales. Very good examples of circular knotwork may be seen on sculptured monuments in Ireland[453] at Kells, Co. Meath; Monasterboice and Termonfechin, Co. Louth; Boho, Co. Fermanagh; Kilfenora, Co. Clare; and Drumcliff, Co. Sligo; and in Scotland[454] at Collieburn, Sutherland (now in the Dunrobin Museum); Tarbet (now at Invergordon Castle), Brodie, Elginshire; Nigg, Ross-shire; Aberlemno, Monifieth (now in the Edinburgh Museum), and Eassie, Forfarshire; and Rossie Priory and St. Madoes, Perthshire.

The most common kinds of circular knotwork appear to have been evolved in the following manner. It has already been shown how knot No. 3 can be derived from a four-cord plait by making a series of horizontal breaks at regular intervals, leaving two crossing-points of the cords between each break; and how knot No. 4 can again be derived from knot No. 3 by making a horizontal break at the point A.

Now if a pair of knots like No. 4 be placed opposite each other thus—

and repeated in a vertical row, we get the pattern shown below.

By making pointed ends to the loops forming the knots and “sweetening” the curves of the bands between each knot the appearance of the whole is changed, and its development from the plait disguised. Almost all geometrical ornament is capable of conveying several different impressions to the mind according to the way it is observed by the eye for the time being, and the intellectual pleasure which a pattern gives is most probably dependent on the infinite variety of these kaleidoscopic changes. Taking this pattern for example, if the attention is concentrated upon the portions of the pattern between each of the points where the bands cross in the centre, it will seem as if the whole was formed of repetitions of knot No. 4; but if the attention be now directed towards the portions lying between the middle points of each of the knots, the pattern will appear to consist entirely of circular curves with two diameters crossing each other diagonally.

When the circular knot thus obtained is repeated in a double row we get a comparatively simple pattern, in which the circular curves assume much greater prominence.

More complicated forms of circular knots can be derived from the elementary circular knot by combining it with a circular ring, either a larger one enclosing the four loops in the middle entirely, or a smaller one interlaced through the loops thus:—

Further variations can again be produced from these by severing the bands in places, and joining parts of the loops to the rings on the same principle that breaks can be made in a plait.

The connection between the different knots will at once become clear if they are drawn on separate pieces of tracing paper and placed one over the other.

Another kind of circular knotwork is formed by enclosing the simpler sort of knots derived directly from plaitwork within a circular band, which crosses over in one or two places and turns inwards to form the enclosed knots.

The illustrations of the different kinds of circular knotwork from actual examples show the process of development.

By the term triangular knotwork is meant interlaced patterns, the setting-out lines of which form triangles only or triangles and lozenges. The patterns are made by distorting the simple knots derived from plaitwork, so as to adapt them to the triangular shape. This species of knotwork is very seldom seen except in a few of the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. and on some of the sculptured stones of Ireland and Scotland. The best examples are at Kilfenora, Co. Clare; Ulbster (now at Thurso Castle), Sutherlandshire; and Dunfallandy, Perthshire.

Under the head of ringwork and chainwork are included all patterns composed of circular, oval, and looped rings interlaced symmetrically round a centre, or arranged so as to form a long chain. Patterns of this kind are not found in the best Celtic work, and when they occur it is generally an indication either of Scandinavian influence or of the style being debased.

A certain number of modifications of the interlaced-work already described are produced by adapting the patterns so that they will fit into circular or annular spaces. Instances of this may be seen on the erect cross-slabs at Hilton of Cadboll (now at Invergordon Castle) and Nigg, Ross-shire; Glamis, Forfarshire; and Rossie Priory, Perthshire; and on the Lough Erne and Monymusk Reliquaries.

STEP-PATTERNS

A step-pattern is one which is formed of straight lines bent backwards and forwards at right angles so as to resemble a flight of steps. The lines are often arranged symmetrically round a centre, so as to make cruciform and swastika designs, and the different parts are also generally shaded alternately black and white on the principle of chequerwork. Step-patterns hardly ever occur in Christian Celtic art except on the enamelled bosses of metalwork and in a few of the illuminated MSS., such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51), the Gospels of MacRegol, the Book of Kells, and the Book of Durrow. The step-patterns in the MSS. so nearly resemble those on the enamelled bosses on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, and the Cross of Cong, that there can be but little doubt the illuminators copied their designs from the enamels. In the Pagan Celtic enamels the ornament is nearly always curvilinear; but in the Christian Celtic enamels it is rectilinear, the arrangement of the cloisons being very similar to that on the Anglo-Saxon disc brooches incrusted with small slabs of garnet, glass, etc. Instances have already been given in a previous chapter of the use of step-patterns by the Pagan Celts on the engraved woodwork from the Glastonbury Marsh Village (p. 161). The only instances I have met with of step-patterns on the sculptured stones of the early Christian period in this country are at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts; and Dysert O’Dea, Co. Clare.

KEY-PATTERNS

The term key-pattern is used to describe a particular kind of rectilinear ornament which bears a certain amount of resemblance to the perforations in a key to allow it to pass the wards of a lock. The best-known key-pattern is the Greek fret. This is composed of what may be appropriately called straight-line spirals; that is to say, straight lines (or, to speak more accurately, narrow straight bars) bent round into a series of right angles in the same direction. The space between the lines (or narrow bars) is generally about the same width as that of the line itself.

The key-patterns used in Christian Celtic art may be classified as follows:—

The essential difference between the key-patterns used by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans and those used by the Christian Celts consists in the introduction of diagonal lines by the latter. Square key-patterns (i.e. those of the Greek fret type) were very seldom used in Christian Celtic art. There is, however, a very good example on one of the crosses at Penmon, Anglesey. The first step in the evolution of the Celtic key-pattern was to turn the Greek fret round through an angle of 45° so as to make the lines run diagonally with regard to the margins instead of parallel to them. Key-patterns in this stage of development are to be seen in the Lindisfarne Gospels, the St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51), and an Anglian cross-shaft from Aberlady, Haddingtonshire, now at Carlowrie Castle, near Kirkliston, Midlothian. It will be observed, however, that the result of changing a square key-pattern into a diagonal one is to leave a series of unornamented triangles all round the edge (p. 280). When these triangles are filled in by bending the ends of the diagonal lines round through an angle of 45°, so as to run parallel to the margins, we get such a characteristically Celtic key-pattern as the one on the great cross-shaft at St. Andrews, Fifeshire. Lastly, when the opposite ends of the diagonal lines in the middle of the panel are bent round in a similar manner, the most typical of all the Celtic key-patterns is arrived at, of which there is a very good example on the erect cross-slab at Farr, Sutherlandshire.

The filling in of the sharp corners made by the lines inclined to each other at an angle of 45°, with small black triangles (if in a MS.) or with sunk triangles (if on a sculptured stone) gives a decorative finish to the pattern, and still further adds to its distinctively Celtic character.

Next to interlaced-work the key-pattern is the most common motive made use of in the decorative art of the Christian Celtic period. It occurs in nearly all the Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS. and on a large proportion of the sculptured monuments in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Key-patterns and interlaced-work in combination, but without any other decorative motive, may be seen on the Welsh crosses at Carew and Nevern, Pembrokeshire; Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire; and Llantwit Major and Margam, Glamorganshire. On the metalwork of the period key-patterns seldom occur, except on the bronze bells, on a strap-buckle from Islandbridge, near Dublin, and on the Crucifixion plaque of repoussé bronze from Athlone, now in the Dublin Museum.

SPIRAL ORNAMENT

The spiral is the only decorative motive used in Christian Celtic art that can be proved to have been borrowed from the Pagan Celtic art of the preceding period. Although spiral ornament appears to be so complicated when it is completed, the geometrical process of setting it out is simplicity itself. All that it is necessary to do is to fill in the surface to be decorated with circles of any size, leaving about the same distance between each; then connect the circle with S- or C-shaped curves; and, lastly, fill in the circles with spirals working from the tangent points, where the S or C curves touch the circles, inwards to the centre. As the size of the circles is a matter of no importance, a surface of irregular shape may be covered with spiral ornament just as easily as one of symmetrical shape. In the flamboyant ornament of the Pagan Celtic period we have the same S- and C-shaped curves, but the circles were occupied either by a disc of enamel (as on the bronze shield from the Thames), or by raised conchoids (as on the gold necklet from Limavady, Co. Londonderry). In the spiral ornament of the Christian Celtic period closely coiled spirals like those of the bronze age were substituted for the discs of enamel or raised conchoids. The background of the spirals, however, retained several of the prominent features of the repoussé metalwork, the effect of the light shining on the raised trumpet-shaped expansions of the S and C curves being imitated in black and white or coloured by almond-like dots. In the later and less refined spiral ornament of the Christian period this background disappears altogether, and the spirals are made all the same size and placed close together.

As the spiral was the earliest decorative motive in Christian Celtic art, so it was also the first to disappear, and its disappearance marks the decadence of the style. We have in a previous chapter traced the spiral motive from the Pagan metalwork through the enamelled disc ornaments of the bronze bowls of the Transition period to the illuminated MSS. of Christian times. Spiral ornament in its best form is to be found in the following MSS.:—

In metalwork spiral ornament is less common than in the MSS., there being good examples on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, the Hunterston Brooch, the Monymusk Reliquary, and the Athlone Crucifixion Plaque.

Spiral ornament of the best kind is found on the sculptured stone monuments only in Ireland and Scotland.[455] In Wales, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man spiral ornament is extremely rare, and when it does occur it is of debased character. Typical examples of spiral ornament may be seen on the sculptured monuments in Ireland at Kells, Co. Meath; Monasterboice, Co. Louth; Clonmacnois, King’s Co.; and Kilklispeen, Co. Kilkenny; and in Scotland at Nigg, Shandwick, Hilton of Cadboll (now at Invergordon Castle), all in Ross-shire; the Maiden Stone, Aberdeenshire; St. Vigeans, Forfarshire; Meigle and Dunfallandy, Perthshire; and Ardchattan, Argyllshire.

Judging from the evidence afforded by the dated specimens, the best kind of spiral ornament seems to have disappeared entirely from Christian Celtic art after the first quarter of the tenth century.

ZOÖMORPHIC DESIGNS

Animal forms are used in Celtic art of the Christian period in three different ways, namely, (1) pictorially, (2) symbolically, and (3) decoratively. As cases of the first kind of treatment we have the hunting scenes,[456] battle scenes,[457] men driving in chariots[458] drawn by horses, groups of animals,[459] etc., on the erect cross-slabs of Scotland and on the bases of some of the Irish and Welsh crosses. Although these subjects may have some symbolism behind them, yet all the living creatures represented are treated realistically, and not conventionally. As cases of the second kind of treatment we have the Symbols of the Four Evangelists, which, although consisting of the figures of a man, a lion, a bull, and an eagle, are generally highly conventionalised. Lastly, we have the decorative use of animal forms, where the zoölogical species of the creatures represented becomes of so little importance that it is altogether ignored. The creatures can certainly be divided into beasts, birds, fishes, and reptiles; but the artist has taken such liberties with the shapes of their bodies, limbs, heads, tails, and other details, that he would be a bold man who would say of any one of the beasts whether it was intended for a lion, a tiger, a dog, a wolf, or a bear. The quadruped most in favour with the Christian Celtic artist may, as has been already suggested, have been degraded by successive copying from the Classical lion. Anyway, it has a head something like that of a dog, with pointed ears, an attenuated body, four legs terminating in paws with claws, and a long tail. The head and the paws are never misrepresented for decorative purposes, but the body, limbs, ears, and tail may be extended to any given length or bent in any desired direction. The beasts and other creatures are generally shown in profile, and only rarely in plan.

In the simplest kind of zoömorphic ornament a single beast is used to fill a panel, the different attitudes being as follows:—

• (1) With the head looking forwards.
• (2) With the head bent backwards.
• (3) With the head bent backwards, biting the middle of the body.
• (4) With the head bent backwards, biting the end of the tail.
• (5) With the tail curled up over the back.
• (6) With the tail curled up under the belly.

If the beasts are in pairs, they may be placed in the following positions:—

• (1) Symmetrically facing towards each other, or face to face.
• (2) Symmetrically facing away from each other.
• (3) In a horizontal row one in front of the other.
• (4) In a vertical row one below the other.

When there are three or four beasts, besides being arranged in rows, they may be placed after the fashion of the triskele or the swastika round a centre.

Interlaced zoömorphic ornament can be made with a single beast by extending the length of its tail and ear, and forming them into knots at intervals, crossing over the body and limbs where necessary. Sometimes the tail alone is knotted. In this sort of ornament the shape of the beast is seen distinctly and the knots occupy the background. A more complicated design can be made from a single beast by twisting its body and limbs into knots as well as the ears and tail.

The panels of zoömorphic ornament in Christian Celtic art are, however, usually composed of two or more beasts placed symmetrically with regard to each other and having their bodies and limbs crossed over and interlaced. The ears and tails may also be extended and formed into knots in combination with the bodies and limbs. The designs thus produced will be seen to consist apparently of two sets of bands crossing each other diagonally, the wide bands being the bodies of the beasts and the narrow bands, the limbs, tails, and ears. The bands are nearly straight, or if bent at all only gently curved.

When the beasts are not placed in opposite symmetrical positions, but in horizontal rows one in front of the other, or in vertical rows one below the other, the bodies are often bent round spirally in one direction or twisted into S-shaped spirals in two directions. A favourite device with the Celtic artist was to make the beasts bite their own bodies, limbs, or tails, or the body, limbs, or tail of the beast immediately in front of it.

The zoömorphic designs composed of birds were arranged on the same principles as those composed of beasts.

Reptiles or serpentine creatures with bodies of nearly the same width throughout were converted into interlaced zoömorphic ornament by twisting, plaiting, looping, or knotting the bodies together. This class of ornament is, in fact, the ordinary interlaced patterns derived from the plait, with heads added at one end and tails at the other.

A very ingenious zoömorphic design is made by filling in a long narrow panel with the body of a serpentine creature undulating from side to side. The head of the creature is at the top of the panel, and the body remains about the same width until it reaches the bottom of the panel, where its width is greatly reduced and its direction reversed. On its return journey it makes a series of Stafford knots, which fill in the spaces between the undulations of the body and the sides of the panel, and the end of the tail is finally received into the mouth of the reptile.[460]

There are two kinds of zoömorphic designs which are peculiar to the MSS. of the period, namely, initial letters made in the form of a bird or beast, and the incomplete frames round the initial pages of the Gospels terminating in a beast’s head at one end and a fish-like tail at the other. The only thing of a similar kind which occurs on the sculptured monuments is the zoömorphic margin round some of the erect cross-slabs of the east of Scotland.[461] The margin is formed by two beasts, the heads of which appear at the top facing each other and the tails at the bottom.

Zoömorphs are found throughout the whole range of Christian Celtic art; they form an important feature in the decoration of nearly all the Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS.; they are particularly characteristic of the Irish ecclesiastical metalwork; and they are of frequent occurrence on the sculptured monuments of Ireland and Scotland. On the crosses of Wales and Cornwall zoömorphs are comparatively rare. Some of the best instances of zoömorphic designs in the MSS. are to be seen in the cross-pages of the Book of Durrow, the Gospels of Lindisfarne, the Book of Kells, the Gospels of St. Chad, and the St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51); in metalwork on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, the Hunterston Brooch, the Shrine of the Bell of St. Patrick’s Will, the Cross of Cong, and the Shrine of St. Manchan; and on sculptured monuments at Termonfechin, Co. Louth; Kells, Co. Meath; Tihilly, King’s Co.; Dysert O’Dea, Co. Clare; Nigg, Ross-shire; Aberlemno and Invergowrie, Forfarshire; St. Madoes, Perthshire; Penally, Pembrokeshire; and Sancreed and Lanherne, Cornwall.