Introduction to the science of language, Volume 1 (of 2)

APPENDIX I. TO CHAPTER IV.
THE VOCAL ORGANS OF ANIMALS.

Comparative anatomy is the foundation of modern physiology: to understand the human organism we must compare it with the organisms of the lower animals. This is as true of the organs of speech as of the organs of locomotion or sensation, and we shall find that, in spite of varying degrees of development, the vocal organs of both man and beast present a general resemblance to each other. Some of the quadrumana have large sacs between the thyroid cartilage and the os hyoideum, which have much to do with modifying and increasing the resonance of the voice. The laryngeal sacs possessed by some of the monkeys of Africa cause the acuteness of tone and hoarseness of cry that characterize them. The great intensity of the voice in the American “howlers” is due to the size of the epiglottis and the existence of large cavities in the thyroid cartilage and os hyoideum which communicate with the ventricles of the larynx and the laryngo-pharyngeal sacs. The bray of the ass has been traced to two large sacs existing between the vocal chords and the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage. Some of the marsupials, such as the kangaroo, have membranous vocal chords which stretch upon themselves and so cannot be stretched by the arytenoid muscles. A few of the mammalia, e.g. the giraffe, the porcupine, and the armadillo, have no vocal chords, and are therefore mute. This is also the case with the cetacea, the bellowing of the whale being produced by the expulsion of water through the nostrils during the act of exspiration.

Birds possess a superior larynx which differs considerably from that of the mammalia, and has nothing to do with the production of sound. Below this is the inferior larynx at the lower end of the trachea, just before it bifurcates into the two bronchi. This is the organ of voice, and differs a good deal, both in form and structure, in the several species of birds. It is double, except in the parrot and a few other birds, and is almost always symmetrical. It is composed of the lower rings of the trachea united so as to form a tube, at the lower end of which are two protuberances, one in front of the other, and joined together in most birds by a thin rod of bone (the os transversale). To the upper edge of this bone is attached a delicate membrane (the membrana semilunaris), which is turned upwards, and to the lower edge another membrane (the membrana tympaniformis), formed of the membranous wall of the bronchus. The latter membrane is highly developed in singing birds, and still more so in speaking birds, and it can render the first-mentioned membrane (with which it is connected) tense when made to vibrate. In some birds the inferior larynx has as many as five muscles, in others none. It is wanting altogether in vultures. It will be seen that the two membranes correspond to the vocal chords in the mammalia, sounds being produced by the vibration of their margins. The various notes are caused by changes in the degree of tension of the membranes, by differences in the force of the air-current, and by changes in the length and degree of tension of the trachea and other parts. The range of the voice in birds is usually within an octave, but may be much greater.

Serpents have no vocal chords, and their hiss is the result of breath being forcibly driven through a soft glottis. Frogs have no trachea, so that their larynx opens into the bronchial tubes; but the loudness of the croaking of male frogs is due to the distension of two membranous sacs at the sides of the neck. Some frogs have membranous vocal chords: others two reed-like bodies, the anterior ends of which are fixed, while the posterior ends looking into the bronchi are free.

We must wait for the microphone to confute or confirm the statement of M. Langlois, of Freiburg, that ants communicate with one another by means of audible sounds. The recent observations of Sir John Lubbock seem to show the contrary. At all events, the sounds produced by most insects are produced externally and not internally. The stridulation of the cricket or grasshopper is made by rubbing certain file-like organs against the edges of membranous drums on the wings. The pitch of the sounds produced by the cricket is high, consisting of 4,096 vibrations per second. The shriek of the death’s-head moth is produced by the friction of parts connected with the mouth and proboscis, the buzzing of flies and gnats by the rapid vibration of two rudimentary posterior wings called halteres. The humming of humble-bees, beetles, and the like is due to the passage of the air through the spiracles.

Fish, with few exceptions, have no special sonorous apparatus. The noise they make when taken out of the water is caused by the sucking or flapping movements of their mouth or gill coverings. It is possible that the air-bladder opening into the pharynx which is possessed by some fish, may enable them to emit sounds.

APPENDIX II. TO CHAPTER IV.
THE ALPHABETS OF PRINCE L-L. BONAPARTE (MR. A. J. ELLIS) AND MR. H. SWEET.

Prince L-L. Bonaparte’s Alphabet, as edited (and amplified) by Mr. A. J. Ellis in palæotype (“Early English Pronunciation,” pp. 1293-1307, and 1352-1357).

The Vowels
(as heard in European languages only).

• 1. a (in fAther).
• 2. a⸲ (in Gaelic math, “good”).
• 3. aʌ (in Fr. dent, Port. lã).
• 4. Ǝ (in Eng. thE book).
• 5. `a⸲ (in Dan. mand, “man”).
• 6. ah (in Eng. ass).
• 7. ə (in Eng. charActer).
• 8. æ (in Eng. man).
• 9. aʌ (in Port. cAma).
• 10. ɐ (in Eng. pOllute).
• 11. œ (in Gael. laogh “calf”).
• 12. œ⸲ (in Gael. mAOdal, “tripe”).
• 13. ᴔ (in Eng. bird).
• 14. ɹ (in Eng. ear)
• 15. ɹ (not found)
• 16. ’h (in Eng. opEN, Germ. muttER).
• 17. ‘’h (not found).

• 18. ‘h (in Dan. hat’, Eng. bit’).
• 19. əh (not found)
• 20. ɑ (in Fr. diAble).
• 21. Œ (in Roumanian tatĂ, “father.”)
• 22. E₁ (not found)
• 23. E (in Finnic pää, “the head”).
• 24. e₁ (not found)
• 25. e₁ (in Fr. père, Germ. fett).
• 26. e₁⸲ (in Gael. freumh, “root”).
• 27. e₁ʌ (in Fr. vin).
• 28. e (in Eng. bed).
• 29. e (in Fr. dé, Germ. Ehre).
• 30. eʌ (in Port. sENha, “sign”).
• 31. e¹ (in Port. cEar, “to sup”).
• 32. e¹ (in Dan. een, “one”).
• 33. y (in Welsh dyn, “man”).
• 34. Y₂ (in Polish bYli, “they have been”).
• 35. i (in Eng. milk).
• 36. i¹ (in Eng. fill).
• 37. i (in Eng. bee).
• 38. i⸲ (in Gael. sINNsreadh, “ancestors”).
• 39. iʌ (in Port. sim, “yes”).
• 40. ’j (in Eng. gate).
• 41. ɔ (in Eng. God).
• 42. ɔh (not found)
• 43. A (in Eng. all).
• 44. ah (not found).
• 45. o₁ (not found).
• 46. o₁ (in Germ. Gott).
• 47. o₁⸲ (in Gael. didOmhnaich, “Sunday”).
• 48. o₁ʌ (in Fr. bon).
• 49. o (in Eng. more).
• 50. oh (in Esthonian wõlg, “debt”).
• 51. o (in Eng. Omit).
• 52. oʌ (in Port. sOnho, “dream”).
• 53. oh (not found).
• 54. uh (in Port. o, “the”).
• 55. o¹ (in Dan. stor, “great”).
• 56. u₁ (in Finnish Suomi).
• 57. u (in Eng. book).
• 58. u (in Eng. pool).
• 59. u⸲ (in Gael. déanADH, “doing”).
• 60. uʌ (in Port. um, “one”).
• 61. ’w (in Eng. home).
• 62. u¹ (in Swed. skuld, “cause”).
• 63. u¹ (in Lap. jUkkim, “I parted”).
• 64. U (in Swed. hus, “house”).
• 65. y (in Fr. lune, Germ. brÜder).
• 66. yʌ (in Basque sü̃ hĩa, “son-in-law”; Albanian hü̃ni, “he entered”).
• 67. I (in Dan. nYde, “to enjoy”).
• 68. æh (in Lap. buÖrre, “good”).
• 69. əh (in Fr. veuf).
• 70. əhʌ (in Fr. un).
• 71. œ (in Germ. böcke).
• 72. ə (in Fr. feu).
• 73. əʌ (not found).
• 74. œ¹ (in Gael. keayn, “sea”).

• 75. ə¹ (in Swed. sYster).
• 76. ’l (in Bohemian vlk, “wolf”).
• 77. ’r (in Bohemian prst, “finger”).

Consonants.

Labials.

He.[223]

• 78. p[224] (in Eng. pea).
• 79. pȷ (in Kasikumuk p’orun, “glass”).
• 80. pp (in Italian coppa).
• 81. pꞁh (in Bav. Germ. pfard).
• 82. ⌊pꞁh (in Thush p`e, “side”).
• 83. wh (in Eng. which).
• 84. pj (in Pol. gap, “lounger”).
• 85. pw (in Fr. pois).
• 86. pwj (in Fr. puits).

Se.[225]

• 87. b (in Eng. bee).
• 88. bȷ (in Kasikumuk b’ar, “pond”).
• 89. bb (in Ital. gobba).
• 90. ‘p (in Saxon Germ.).
• 91. w (in Eng. wine).
• 92. bj (in Pol. jedwaB, “silk”).
• 93. bw (in Fr. bois).
• 94. bwj (in Fr. buis).

Ne.[226]

• 95. m (in Eng. me).
• 96. mh (in Eng. tempt).
• 97. mm (in Ital. fiamma).
• 98. mȷ (in Kas. ’maq, “thirst”).
• 99. b⸲ (in Westmoreland sebm, “seven”).
• 100. w⸲ (in Erse saṀrad, “summer”).
• 101. mj (in Polish karM, “feeding”).
• 102. mw (in Fr. moi).
• 103. mwj (in Fr. muid).

Hc.[227]

• 104. ph (whispered bh; ? in Greek φ).

Sc.[228]

• 105. bh (in Spanish haba).
• 106. bhw (Dutch w).

Ht.[229]

• 107. prh (whispered brh).

St.[230]

• 108. brh (made by children with the lips).
• 109. ɯ (in Eng. veRy).
• 110. ɹw (in Eng. our occ.).

Labio-Dentals.

He.

• 111. P (not found).

Se.

• 112. B (lower lip against the teeth).

Hc.

• 113. f (in Eng. foe).
• 114. ff (in Ital. schiaffo).
• 115. f (not found).
• 116. ·fh (not found).
• 117. fj (in Guernsey fyaïz, “flee ye”).
• 118. fw (in Fr. foie).
• 119. fwj (in Fr. fuite).

Sc.

• 120. v (in Eng. vine).
• 121. vȷ (in Kas. ‘warta, “plate”).
• 122. vv (in Ital. avventura).
• 123. ⌊v (in Dan. KjöBenhavn).
• 124. v (not found).
• 125. ‘v (Dutch v).
• 126. vH (not found).
• 127. vj (in Pol. paW, “peacock”).
• 128. vw (in Fr. voix).

Nc.[231]

• 129. v⸲ (in Erse feiṀ,“mild”).

Labio-Linguals.

He.

• 130. ˎp (in Abasian aTà, “hay”).
• 131. ˎpˎp (in Ab. yTa, “sit down”).

Se.

• 132. ˎb (in Ab. aDỳ, “field”).

Sl.[232]

• 133. ˎlw (in Gaelic Lamh, “hand”).

Dentals.

He.

• 134. ˎˎt (in Erse Talain, “earth”).
• 135. ˎˎtj (in Erse tirm, “dry”).

Se.

• 136. ˎˎd (in Erse donn, “brown”).
• 137. ˎˎdj (in Erse dia, “God”).

Hc.

• 138. th (in Eng. thin).
• 139. c (not found).

Sc.

• 140. dh (in Eng. then).
• 141. c (not found).

Hl.[233]

• 142. Ʇh (not found).
• 143. Ʇ (in Manx ooyL, “apple”).

Alveolo-Dentals.

Hc.

• 144. c (in West Nyland Finnish metsä, “forest”).
• 145. ⸲th (in Ital. viZio).

Sc.

• 146. c (in Albanian Zot, “lord”).
• 147. ⸲dh (in Span. liD).

Double Alveolars.

Hc.

• 148. ˎs (in Ital. lo Zio).
• 149. ˎsˎs (in Ital. pazzo).
• 150. .ˎs (in Ab. aca, “granary”).
• 151. ɾ̣ɾ̣ (in Ab. aC´abyrg, “truth”).
• 152. .ɾ̣ (in Ab. ácá, “wild cherry”).
• 153. .ɾ̣ȷ (in Kas. čabre, “much”).
• 154. ˎsj (in Pol. siaC´, “to sow”).
• 155. ˎsw (in Abasian aC´a, “apple”).
• 156. .ˎsw (in Ab. ac`, “ox”).

Sc.

• 157. ˎz (in Ital. lo zelo).
• 158. ˎzˎz (in Ital. rozzo).
• 159. ˎzj (in Pol. jedz´, “go”).
• 160. ˎzw (in Ab. az´y, “some one”).

Alveolars.

He.

• 161. ˎt (in Fr. tas).
• 162. ˎtȷᴶ (in Kas. t’ai, “colt”).
• 163. ˎtˎt (in Ital. matto).
• 164. tꞁh (in Dan. til, “to”).
• 165. tȷꞁh (in Kas. ja’t‘olṣa, “red”).

• 166. ⌊tꞁh (in Thush t‘uix, “salt”).
• 167. ˎtj (in Russ. poot’, “way”).
• 168. ˎtw (in Fr. toi).
• 169. ˎtwj (in Fr. étui).

Se.

• 170. ˎd (in Fr. doux).
• 171. ˎdȷ (in Kas. d’oxlu, “freshness”).
• 172. ˎdˎd (in Ital. Iddio).
• 173. ‘d (in Saxon).
• 174. ˎdj (in Russ. loshad’, “horse”).
• 175. ˎdw (in Fr. doigt).
• 176. ˎdwj (in Fr. conduire).

Ne.

• 177. ˎn (in Fr. nain).
• 178. ˎnȷ (in Kas. n’ak, “blue”).
• 179. ˎnˎn (in Ital. canna, “reed”).
• 180. d⸲ (in Irish bean, “woman”).
• 181. ˎnj (in Russ. lên’, “tench”).
• 182. ˎnw (in Fr. noix).
• 183. ˎnwj (in Fr. nuit).

Hc.

• 184. s (in Eng. so).
• 185. ss (in Ital. cassa).
• 186. sȷsȷ (in Kas. ṣ’ât, “hour”).
• 187. sH (= the Arab. ص).
• 188. sj (in Pol. koś,“mow”).
• 189. sw (in Fr. soie).
• 190. swj (in Fr. suie).

Sc.

• 191. z (in Eng. zeal).
• 192. zz (in Hungarian azzal, “with the”).
• 193. .z (in Ab. zaqa, “how much”).
• 194. zj (in Pol. leź, “go up”).
• 195. zw (in Fr. rasoir).
• 196. zwj (in Fr. dix-huit).

Nc.

• 197. zh⸲ (not found).

Hl.

• 198. lwh (not found).

Sl.

• 199. ˎl (in Fr. lait).
• 200. lȷ (in Kas. l’ap, “shine”).
• 201. ˎlˎl (in Ital. stella).
• 202. ˎlj (in Russ. korol’, “king”).
• 203. ˎlw (in Fr. loi).
• 204. ˎlwj (in Fr. lui).

St.

• 205. ˎr (in Span. rey).

Whishes (Chuintantes).

Hc.

• 206. sh (in Eng. she).
• 207. shȷ (in Kas. š’arabuču [š’], “fellow-countryman”).
• 208. shsh (in Ital. pesce).
• 209. shȷshȷ (in Kas. ṣ̆’oldi, “green”).
• 210. .sh (in Ab. aša, “rope”).
• 211. shj (in Russ. vosh’, “louse”).
• 212. shw (in Fr. choix).
• 213. shwj (in Fr. chuinter).
• 214. shwshw (in Ab. aṣ̌`, “plane-tree”).
• 215. .shw (in Ab. aš`, “door”).

Sc.

• 216. zh (in Eng. pleasure).
• 217. zhzh (in Hung. a’zseb, “the pocket”).
• 218. .zh (in Ab. aža, “hare”).
• 219. zhj (in Basque [Soule] jin, “come”).
• 220. zhw (in Fr. joie).
• 221. zhwzhw (in Ab. aẓ̌`, “cow”).
• 222. .zhw (in Ab. ž`aba, “ten”).
• 223. zhwj (in Fr. juin).

Ht.

• 224. rsh (in Polish przez, “through”).

St.

• 225. rzh (not found).

Palatal Whishes.

Hc.

• 226. ˎsh (in Ital. pece).
• 227. ˎshˎsh (in Ital. caccia).
• 228. .ˎsh (in Ab. ača, “quail”).
• 229. ɾ̣hɾ̣h (in Ab. ač̣´y, “mouth”).
• 230. .ɾ̣h (in Ab. ač`y, “horse”).
• 231. .ɾ̣hȷ (in Kas. č’an, “early”).
• 232. ˎshj (in Russ. noch’, “night”).
• 233. ˎshw (in Louisiana Creole choui, “to cook”).
• 234. ˎshwj (in Trinidad Creole chouite, “to cook”).

Sc.

• 235. ˎzh (in Ital. regio).
• 236. ˎzhˎzh (in Ital. maggio).
• 237. ˎzhj (in Basque [Soule] espundja, “sponge”).
• 238. ˎzhwj (in Louisiana Creole néjuî, “needle”).

Double Palatals.

Hc.

• 239. ʇs (in Basque otso, “wolf”).

Palatals.

Hc.

• 240. t (in Eng. tea).
• 241. ⌊t (in Dan. huset, “the house”).
• 242. Jh (in Eng. hue).
• 243. tj (in Hung. tyúk, “hen”).
• 244. tjtj (in Hung. a’ tyúk, “the hen”).

Se.

• 245. d (in Eng. do).
• 246. dd (in Sardinian beddu, “beautiful”).
• 247. ⌊d (in Span. lado).
• 248. ⌊d⌊d (in Jutland Gud, “God”).
• 249. J (in Eng. yet).
• 250. JJ (in Hung. ejjel, “night”).
• 251. dj (in Hung. gyöngy, “pearl”).
• 252. djdj (in Hung. a’ gyöngy, “the pearl”).

Ne.

• 253. n (in Eng. no).
• 254. nh (in Eng. tent).
• 255. J⸲ (in Basque [Roncal] azkoỹa, “badger”).
• 256. nj (in Fr. digne).
• 257. njnj (in Hung. a’ nyul, “the hare”).
• 258. njh (not found).

Hc.

• 259. ˏs (in Sp. Basque su, “fire”).

Sc.

• 260. ˏz (in Port. zagal, “young shepherd”).

Hl.

• 261. lh (in Eng. felt).
• 262. ljh (in Saintongeais glas, “knell”).

Sl.

• 263. l (in Eng. low).
• 264. lj (in Ital. figlio).
• 265. ljlj (in Hung. melly, “which”).

Ht.

• 266. ↋ʰ (not found).
• 267. h (= Arab. ح).
• 268. hȷ (in Kas. ḥ’olu, “orphan”).
• 269. hȷhȷ (in Kas. ḥ´i, “pigeon”).
• 270. rH (in Kas. ḥ˘aba, “fish”).

St.

• 271. r (in Eng. “ray”).
• 272. rr (in Ital. terra).
• 273. ↋ (= Arab. ع).
• 274. rj (in Lusatian wuhor´, “eel”).
• 275. rw (in Fr. roi).
• 276. rwj (in Fr. bruit).

Ultra-Palatals.

The whole of this set of letters comes originally from Lepsius’s Alphabet, and “must be considered, therefore, very doubtful.”

He.

• 277. T (in Sansk.).

Se.

• 278. D (in Sansk.).

Ne.

• 279. N (in Sansk.).
• 280. Nh (in Dravidian).

Hc.

• 281. sh (in Sansk.).
• 282. Thh (in Drav.).

Sc.

• 283. zh (theoretical).
• 284. Dhh (in Drav.).

Hl.

• 285. Lh (in Drav.).

Sl.

• 286. L (in Sansk.).

Ht.

• 287. Rh (theoretical).

St.

• 288. R (in Sansk.).
• 289. Rhh (in Drav.).

Gutturo-Labials.

He.

• 290. p (in Peruvian).
• 291. wjh (in Ab. ih´y, “speak”).

Se.

• 292. b (not found).
• 293. wj (in Fr. huile).

Hc.

• 294. fh (not found).

Sc.

• 295. vh (not found).

Gutturo-Dentals.

Hc.

• 296. th (in Surgut Ostiak kat’, “day”).
• 297. thth (in S. Ost. wat’t’ak, “without”).
• 298. thj (in Low S. Ost. sit̄’a, “gunpowder”).
• 299. thjthj (not found).

Sc.

• 300. dh (in S. Ost. âd’an, “morning”).
• 301. dhdh (in S. Ost. wad’d’ax, “without”).
• 302. dhj (in High S. Ost. sid̄’a, “gunpowder”).
• 303. dhjdhj (not found).

Guttural Whishes.

Hc.

• 304. ˏˏsh (in Tempiese Sardinian la chjai, “the key”).
• 305. ˏˏshˏˏsh (in Temp. Sard. vecchju, “old”).
• 306. ˏˏshwj (in Picard kyuir, “leather”).

Sc.

• 307. ˏˏzhwj (in Temp. Sard. la ghjesgia, “the church”).
• 308. ˏˏzhwjˏˏzhwj (in Temp. Sard. ogghji, “to-day”).

Gutturo-Palatals.

He.

• 309. t (= Arab. ط).
• 310. tj (in Basque [Labourd] ttorttoil, “turtle-dove”).

Se.

• 311. d (= Arab. ض).
• 312. dj (in Basque [Labourd] yaun, “lord”).

Ne.

• 313. n (not found).

Hc.

• 314. ˏs (not found).
• 315. s (in Basque [Labourd] su, “fire”).

Sc.

• 316. ˏz (not found).
• 317. z (in Basque [Labourd] Jesus).

Double Guttural.

Hc.

• 318. ˏkh (in Gaelic mac, “son”).

Gutturals.

He.

• 319. k (in Eng. key).
• 320. kȷ (in Kas. k’orn, “nest”).
• 321. kk (in Ital. bocca).
• 322. kꞁh (in Upper Germ. komm).
• 323. kȷꞁh (in Kas. k‘’ala, “white”).
• 324. ⌊kꞁh (in Thush k’ok, “foot”).
• 325. Hh (in Germ. hand).
• 326. HhHh (in Hung. ahhoz, “thereto”).
• 327. H (in Eng. hand).
• 328. ; (= Arab. hemza).
• 329. kj (in Ital. la chiave).
• 330. kjkj (in Ital. occhio).
• 331. Hhj (in Florentine Ital. la chiave).
• 332. kw (in Fr. quoi).
• 333. Hwh (an ordinary whistle).
• 334. Hw (a voiced whistle).
• 335. kwj (in Fr. biscuit).

Se.

• 336. g (in Eng. go).
• 337. gg (in Ital. veggo).
• 338. ‘g (in Ostiak argem, “I sing”).
• 339. H’w (in Span. huevo).
• 340. gj (in Ital. la ghianda).
• 341. gjgj (in Ital. ragghiare).
• 342. gw (in Fr. goître).
• 343. gwj (in Fr. aiguille).

Ne.

• 344. q (in Eng. singer).
• 345. qh (in Eng. sink).
• 346. H‘h⸲ (in Scutari Albanian halk, “multitude”).
• 347. qj or qɈ (in Sanskr.)

Hc.

• 348. kh (in Germ. dach).
• 349. x (existence doubtful).
• 350. khkh (in Sassarese Sard. palchi, “because”).
• 351. khȷkhȷ (in Kas. x´’ot, “shade”).
• 352. khH (not found).
• 353. kjh (in Germ. milch).
• 354. kwh (in Scotch loch).

Sc.

• 355. gh (in Germ. tage).
• 356. x (existence doubtful).
• 357. ghgh (in Sass. Sard. olganu, “organ”).
• 358. .gh (existence doubtful).
• 359. gjh (in Germ. selig).
• 360. gwh (in Germ. auge).

Nc.

• 361. gh⸲h (in Avar ẋonkodize [ẋ] “to snore”).

Hl.

• 362. lh (not found).
• 363. lhh (in Welsh llaw, “hand”).
• 364. lhhj (not found).
• 365. lwh (not found).

Sl.

• 366. l (in Pol. łamac, “to break”).
• 367. lhh (theoretical voiced Welsh ll).
• 368. lhhj (not found).
• 369. lw (not found).

Hl.

• 370. krh (= Arab. خ).
• 371. .rh (not found).

Sl.

• 372. grh (= Arab. غ).
• 373. .r (= Newcastle “burr”).
• 374. ⌊r (in Jutland var, “was”).
• 375. r (in Parisian Paris).
• 376. rr (in Parisian irregulier).

Ultra-Gutturals.

He.

• 377. K (= Arab. ق).
• 378. Kȷ (in Kas. q’apa, “hat”).

Sc.

• 379. G (not found).
• 380. Gw (not found).

Ne.

• 381. Q (not found).

Hc.

• 382. kh (in Dutch nacht).
• 383. khȷ (in Kas. x̣’ort, “pear”).
• 384. .kh (in Kas. x̣’ata, “house”).
• 385. Kwh (not found).

Sc.

• 386. Gh (in Dutch God).
• 387. Gwh (not found).

Ht.

• 388. Ꞁh (not found).

St. 389.

• Ꞁ (in Dan. ret, “right”).
• 390. ȴꞀ (in Dan. var, “was”).

J denotes palatalized or mouillées characters, w labialized or veloutées characters, wj labio-palatalized or mixtes characters, ⌊ a weakened consonant, a doubled letter or group of letters an emphasized consonant, a prefixed . a semi-emphasized consonant, prefixed ˎ an alveolarized or dentalized or “advanced” consonant, a prefixed ˏ a “retracted” consonant, and ȷ a semi-palatalized or semi-mouillée consonant.[234]

MR. SWEET’S NARROW ROMIC ALPHABET AND LIST OF SYMBOLS.[235]

•   1. a (in father).
•   2. ɐ (in bat).
•   3. ɑ (broad a).
•   4. ɒ (broad ɐ).
•   5. A }
• Ɐ } (varieties of ɐ).
•   6. æ (in men).
•   7. əe (in man).
•   8. æh (in turn).
•   9. əeh (in opener).
• 10. b (in bee).
• 11. bh (German w).

• 12. bhj (palatalized bh).
• 13. d (in day).
• 14. dh (in then).
• 15. dhj (palatalized dh).
• 16. D (palatal d).
• 17. e (close e).
• 18. ə (French close eu).
• 19. e (variety of open e).
• 20. ə (variety of French open eu).
• 21. eh }
• eh } (German unaccented e).
• 22. f (in fee).
• 23. g (in go).
• 24. gh (voiced kh).
• 25. ghr (trilled gh).
• 26. ghw (labialized gh).
• 27. gj }
• G } (palatalized g).
• 28. h (general diacritic).
• 29. H (aspirate).
• 30. Hh (open glottis).
• 31. i (narrow i).
• 32. i (wide i).
• 33. ih (Welsh u).
• 34. ih (wide ih).
• 35. j (in you).
• 36. jh (voiceless j).
• 37. jhw (labialized jh).
• 38. kh (Scotch ch).
• 39. khr (trilled kh).
• 40. khw (labialized kh).
• 41. kH (aspirated k).
• 42. kj }
• K } (palatalized k).
• 43. l (in lee).
• 44. lh (voiceless l).
• 45. L (palatal l).
• 46. Ꞁ (guttural l).
• 47. m (in may).
• 48. mh (voiceless m).
• 49. n (in now).
• 50. nh (voiceless n).
• 51. n (nasality).
• 52. N (palatal n).
• 53. o (close o).
• 54. o (open o).
• 55. oh (between o and ə).
• 56. oh (between o and ə).
• 57. ɔ (open o in all).
• 58. ɔh (between ɔ and œ).
• 59. ɔ (open o in not).
• 60. ɔh (between ɔ and œ).
• 61. œ (open French eu).
• 62. œ (wide œ).
• 63. p (in pay).
• 64. ph (voiceless bh).
• 65. phj (palatalized ph).
• 66. pH (aspirated p).
• 67. q (in sing).
• 68. qh (voiceless q).
• 69. q (French nasality).
• 70. r (in red).
• 71. r (trilled letter).
• 72. rr (trilled r).
• 73. rh (voiceless r).
• 74. rhr (trilled rh).
• 75. rj (palatalized r).
• 76. R (laryngal r).
• 77. Rh (voiceless R).
• 78. s (in say).
• 79. sj (palatalized s).
• 80. sh (in fish).
• 81. shj (palatalized sh).
• 82. shw (labialized sh).
• 83. t (in tea).
• 84. th (in thing).
• 85. thj (palatalized th).
• 86. tH (aspirated t).
• 87. T (palatal t).
• 88. u (narrow u).
• 89. uh (Swedish u).

• 90. u (English u).
• 91. uh (wide uh).
• 92. v (in vie).
• 93. ʌ (denotes voice).
• 94. ʌh }
• ‘ʌ } (whisper).
• 95. w (in we).
• 96. wh (in why).
• 97. w (labialization).
• 98. x (glottal catch).
• 99. y (French u).
• 100. y (wide y).
• 101. z (in zeal).
• 102. zh (in rouge).
• 103. (a)I (denotes length).
• 104. a II (extra length).
• 105. a· (stress or force).
• 106. a¨ (extra stress).
• 107. a: (half stress).
• 108. a̿ (level force).
• 109. a᷾ (increasing force).
• 110. a͐ (diminishing force).
• 111. — (level tone).
• 112. / (rising tone).
• 113. \ (falling tone).
• 114. ∨ (falling and rising tone).
• 115. ∧ (rising and falling tone).
• 116. [i] (glide).
• 117. ‘z (whispered s).
• 118. aˏ (inner or away from the teeth).
• 119. aˎ (outer).
• 120. r† (protruded).
• 121. r⸸ (inverted or cerebral).
• 122. * (denotes simultaneity of two sounds it comes between).
• 123. eˡ (raised tongue).
• 124. oˡ (narrowed lip-opening).
• 125. — (beginning of sound-group on weak stress).