Manual of Military Training / Second, Revised Edition

However, in the noise and confusion of battle it would be utterly impossible for all the men to hear the captain's voice. Experience shows that from 20 to 35 rifles are as many as one leader can control. The captain, must, therefore, control the company through the platoon commanders—that is to say, he actually directs the fire and the platoon commanders, assisted by the squad leaders, actually control it. In other words, the captain communicates with the men on the firing line, he makes his will known to them, through his platoon commanders, as graphically shown in this diagram:

However, in order for our system of communication to be successful, each and every man, as stated above, must know and do his part and endeavor all he can to help the others. If this is done, then the different parts and elements of the company will dove-tail and fit into one another, resulting in a complete, homogeneous whole, in the form of an efficient, pliable, manageable instrument in the hands of the company commander. And this is the object, the result, sought by practice and instruction in field firing, and which will be obtained if the captain, the platoon leaders, the squad leaders, the file closers, the musicians, and the privates, will perform the following duties and functions:

1435. The Captain. (Fire direction.)

The captain directs the fire of the company or of designated platoons. He designates the target, and, when practicable, allots a part of the target to each platoon. Before beginning the fire action he determines the range, announces the sight setting, and indicates the class of fire to be employed, and the time to open fire. Thereafter, he observes the fire effect, corrects material errors in sight setting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, and causes the distribution of such extra ammunition as may be received from the rear. (I. D. R. 249.)

Having indicated clearly what he desires the platoon leaders to do, the captain avoids interfering, except to correct serious errors or omissions. (I. D. R. 240.)

1436. The Platoon Leaders. (Fire direction.)

In combat the platoon is the fire unit. (I. D. R. 250.)

Each platoon leader puts into execution the commands or directions of the captain, having first taken such precautions to insure correct sight setting and clear description of the target or aiming point as the situation permits or requires; thereafter, he gives such additional commands or directions as are necessary to exact compliance with the captain's will. He corrects the sight setting when necessary. He designates an aiming point when the target cannot be seen with the naked eye.

In general, platoon leaders observe the target and the effect of their fire and are on the alert for the captain's commands or signals; they observe and regulate the rate of fire. (I. D. R. 252.)

1437. The Guides watch the firing line and check every breach of fire discipline.

1438. The Squad Leaders transmit commands and signals when necessary, observe the conduct of their squads and abate excitement, assist in enforcing fire discipline and participate in the firing.

Every squad leader should place himself just a little in advance of the rest of his squad and by occasionally glancing to the right and left, observe how the men of their squads are doing—whether they are firing at the proper objective, if the sights are apparently properly adjusted, if they are firing too rapidly, etc. After each shot the squad leader should look toward his platoon leader, and then glance to his right and left to observe his men, and then load and fire again.

1439. The Musicians assist the captain by observing the enemy, the target, and the fire effect, by transmitting commands or signals, and by watching for signals. (I. D. R. 235.)

1440. The Privates will take advantage of cover, exercise care in setting the sights and delivering fire; be on the constant lookout for orders from their leaders; always aim deliberately; observe the enemy carefully, increasing the fire when the target is favorable and ceasing firing when the enemy disappears; not neglect a target because it is indistinct; not waste ammunition, but be economical with it; if firing without a leader to retain their presence of mind and direct an efficient fire upon the proper target.

1441. Distribution of Fire. The distribution of fire over the entire target is of the greatest importance; for, a section of the target not covered by fire represents a number of the enemy permitted to fire coolly and effectively. So, remember that all parts of the target are equally important, and care must be taken that the men do not neglect its less visible parts.

The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, or each platoon leader takes as his target that part which corresponds to his position in the company. Every man is so instructed that he will fire on that part of the target which is directly opposite him.

If the target cannot be seen with the naked eye, platoon leaders select an object in front of or behind it, designate this as the aiming point, and direct a sight-setting which will carry the fire into the target. The men aim at the good aiming point or line, but with such an increased or decreased sight-setting, as the case may be, that the bullets will fall on the target instead of on the aiming point.

Distribution of fire is assured by dividing the whole target assigned the company into definite parts or sectors, and allotting these parts or sectors to the various platoons. And, of course, the whole of the target must be kept under fire while the company is advancing. This may be accomplished by one of two methods:

1442. Overlapping Method. In this method each sector (target) is covered by more than one fire unit. For example, in a company of four platoons the entire company sector would be divided in two parts, the right part being covered by the first and second platoons and the left part by the third and fourth platoons. When the first platoon ceases fire to advance, the second platoon would replace the lost rifles by firing faster. With three platoons the company sector would be divided into two parts, one being assigned to each flank platoon and the whole company sector to the center platoon. When the first platoon advanced, the center platoon would cover its target, both the center and third platoons increasing their rate of fire. With two platoons, each would cover the whole company sector.

1443. Switch Method. The company is divided into a number of parts, one less than the number of platoons in the company. One platoon is designated as the "switch," and swings into fire automatically into that sector from which the fire of its assigned unit is withdrawn. For example, with four platoons, and platoon rushes to start from the right, the company sector is divided into three parts assigned to the first, second and third platoons, the fourth being the "switch." When number 1 ceases fire to advance, No. 4 fires at No. 1's target; when No. 2 ceases to fire, No. 4 fires at No. 2's target, then at No. 3's target, and finally No. 4 advances.

1444. Individual instruction in fire distribution. Every man should be thoroughly drilled, instructed and trained always to fire at that part of the hostile target which corresponds to the position he occupies in his platoon. That is to say, if on the right of his platoon, he fires at the right (as he faces it) of the hostile target; if in the right center of his platoon, he fires at the right center (as he faces it) of the target, and so on. This is represented by the following diagram, the points A', B', C', etc., representing the parts of the hostile target at which the men occupying the positions A, B, C, etc., in their platoon, would fire:

1445. Designation of target. It is very important that the commanders should be able to describe the objectives to be attacked and the sectors[19] to be defended, and that individual soldiers should be able to understand and transmit to other soldiers such descriptions. Within the squad, target designation implies ability on the part of the squad leader to understand and transmit to his squad the target designation received from his platoon leader, and also ability on his own part to designate a target intelligently; within the platoon, target designation implies ability on the part of the platoon leader to understand the company commander's designation of the target and to transmit that designation to his platoon in such manner as to insure an equal distribution of its fire within the sector assigned to it; within the company, target designation implies ability on the part of the company commander to designate the targets into which the company sector is divided in such manner that the platoon leaders will have no trouble in understanding him. It also implies ability on the part of the company commander to change the objectives or sectors of his platoons, and his ability to cover the whole target of the company during a forward movement of a part of the company, by the so-called "switch" or the "overlapping" method, or by any other method which is practicable and accomplishes the desired end. Targets should be designated in a concise, prompt, unmistakable manner, but, as we all know, it is not always an easy matter to describe the location of an object, especially if the object be not conspicuous or readily recognized. This is due to two reasons: First, the unit commander is likely to indulge in vague talk instead of accurate description, and, second, even if correct terms are used, it is more than likely that all members of the firing line will not be able to grasp the idea, because the commander will be using expressions which, although understood by himself (in some cases perhaps due to the fact that he is looking at the objective), they will not be clear to the men. The secret of prompt, accurate and concise designation of a target lies in the use of simple words and terms with which both the unit commander and the men on the firing line are thoroughly familiar.

Of course, if the target be distinct and clearly defined, it can easily be designated by name, as for example, "That battery on the hill just in front of us," "Cavalry to our right front," etc.

Generally the designation of a target, if not conspicuous nor readily recognized, will include:

1. A statement of what the target is, or its appearance (shape, color, size, etc.)

2. Where the target is with reference to some easily recognized reference point.

3. How wide the company sector is.

The following systems of target designation are used at the School of Musketry. Each has its limitations, defects and advantages, under various conditions of ground, etc. A wise selection of one or a combination of two or more, is a material factor in efficiency.

1446. Horizontal Clock Face System. (Used with visible, distinct targets.)

Procedure:

1. All look along the line pointing toward one o'clock of a horizontal clock face whose center is at the firing point, and whose 12 o'clock mark is directly perpendicular to the front of the firing line.

2. All look at a point about 1000 yards away on the one o'clock line, and

3. At 1000 yards on the one o'clock line find the objective.

1447. Vertical Clock Face System. (Used with small or indistinct targets.)

Procedure:

1. All men look to their right front (or along the two o'clock line).

2. The reference point (stone house) is found in the indicated direction.

3. A clock face (vertical) is imagined centered on the reference point, and the men look along the line leading from the clock center through three o'clock, and

4. 1000 yards from the firing point.

5. Find the hostile patrol.

1447a. Finger System. (Used with indistinct or invisible targets and to define sectors.)

Procedure:

The reference point is found as explained, and the vertical o'clock line upon which the target will be found. The soldiers who do not see the target will extend the aim to its full extent palm of the hand upward, finger held vertically with one side of the hand "against" the reference point. The target will be found on the four o'clock line, and touching the third finger, at 1000 yards distance, its right flank at the bush and its left flank about 100 yards farther to the right.

The following case will illustrate more concretely the use of the "Finger" system:

There is a red house about 3/4 mile to our front, and to the right of this house and a hundred yards or so to its rear, there is a line of trenches that can be seen with the aid of field glasses, but the trenches are difficult to locate with the unaided eye. There is no prominent landmark in the direction of this line of trenches, or on either flank, except the red house mentioned. The company commander locates the flanks of the line of trenches through his field glasses; he then extends his arm forward horizontally its full length, palm up, raises the fingers of his hand and, sighting on the line of trenches, finds that the trench line has a length of four "finger widths," and that the flank of the line nearest the red house is three "finger widths" from it. He decides to divide the line into two sections of two "fingers" each, and assign one section to each of his two platoons. He then calls his platoon leaders (and range finders, if necessary), and says, for instance: "Center of objective, five to the right of that red house, First Platoon, two fingers; Second Platoon, two fingers." The two platoon leaders then estimate the range and give the company commander their estimates independently. The company commander also estimates the range, and taking the average, then announces the range, say 1300 yards, after which the platoon leaders return to their platoons, and give, for instance, these instructions: "The target is a line of trenches four 'fingers' long, and about 1300 yards away; the center of the target is five 'fingers' to the right of that red house, at about 10 o'clock. We are to fire at the two fingers on the right of the center and the Second Platoon will look after the two fingers on the left of the center." (The leader of the Second Platoon gives similar instructions.)

Every man in the platoon figures out the platoon objective and endeavors to fix it with respect to some features of the ground so that he will be able to pick it up promptly after his platoon starts to advance. After fixing well in his mind the platoon objective, he figures out what part of it belongs to his squad, and then selects that portion of the squad objective corresponding to his position in the squad. If during the advance, his particular portion of the target should become hidden from view, he will fire on the nearest portion of the trench line, returning to his own part as soon as it becomes visible.

1447b. Communication. After the company has been committed to the fire fight, verbal commands cannot be heard, and it is well nigh impossible even to secure attention to signals. It is, therefore, most important that we should train and practice the company as much as possible during time of peace in the rapid and accurate transmission of orders and signals along the firing line.

Matter upon which a commander would need to communicate with his subordinates, in addition to tactical orders, would generally be confined to:

(a) Changes of elevation and deflection.

(b) Changes in the apportionment of the target among the subdivisions.

(c) Changes within the limits of the sector, or objective.

(d) Changes in the rate of fire.

(e) And rarely change of target from one within to one without the limits of the objective or sector.

1448. Procedure. The following is given merely as a concrete example of the procedure that might be followed in certain ring exercises—it will not, of course, apply to all cases; it is merely given as a concrete illustration of what might actually be done under certain conditions.

Company Commander. On receiving his instructions from the officer in charge of the exercise, the company commander returns to his company, keeping track of the changing aspect of his target as he does so. Arriving at the center of his company, he is met by his platoon leaders, and range finders, who have assembled in his absence. The company commander says:

"The target is a line of skirmishers, visible in part. It may be seen between us and that long line of green bushes which begins one finger to the right of that red water tower at 11 o'clock and it extends well beyond the bushes both to the right and to the left."

(At this point the range finders begin their estimation and the captain pauses until the senior range finder, or other designated person automatically announces the average estimate of the range, saying for example, "range 1100.")

The captain then resumes, saying:

"The sector assigned to this company is three fingers long and extends from that group one finger to the right of the water tower, to a point four fingers to the right of the tower. Each platoon will cover the entire company sector. Range ten-fifty and eleven-fifty. Fire at will at my signal. Posts."

Platoon Leaders. The platoon leaders then hasten to the center of their platoons and "put into execution the commands and directions of the captain, having first taken such precautions to insure a correct sight-setting and clear description of the aiming point as the situation permits or requires" (Par. 251 I. D. R.), by saying:

Target: The target is a line of skirmishers about 1100 yards to our front, only parts of which are visible.

Reference point: That long line of bushes about 1300 yards to our left front. The company sector is three fingers long and lies between us and that reference point, extending one-half finger beyond each end of the bushes.

Aiming point: The bottom of the line of bushes.

Range: 1050 and 1150.

As soon as the range is announced each front rank man sets his sight at 1050 and each rear rank man at 1150. Squad leaders assure themselves that sights are set and that the men of their squads understand the aiming point and sector and then raise their hand as a signal that all are ready. Similarly, the platoon leaders raise their hands to show that all of the squads are ready, and when the captain sees that all of his platoons are ready, he signals to begin firing. At the captain's signal, each platoon leader commands: "Fire at Will."

Firing then begins at a rate of about 3 shots per minute (Par. 14, I. D. R.).

1449. Points To Be Borne in Mind. Bear in mind the following points in the solution of field firing problems:

1. Combine sights should, as a rule, be used where the estimated range is 1000 yards or more, the two ranges being 50 yards on each side of the estimated range, the even numbers firing at one range, the odd numbers at the other.

2. When aiming points are chosen they should be clearly described. Bushes, bunches of lines of grass, fence posts, etc., should not be designated as aiming points when clear and more definite aiming points are available. The choice of the best of several possible aiming points is of great importance.

3. Have some system of simple signals whereby you may know when all your men are ready to begin firing. Otherwise, you may begin the firing before some of your men have their sights set and before they understand the sector and point of aim. For example, let each squad leader raise his right hand when his squad is ready, and each platoon leader his right hand when his platoon is ready.

4. Platoon leaders must always be sure to designate a definite aiming point. Remember that in the case of an indistinct target, the company commander describes the TARGET to the platoon leaders, and they in turn announce the AIMING POINT. Having seen and located the target, the platoon leader must examine the terrain at, in front of and behind the target, and choose the aiming point for his men. He must then determine the proper sight-setting for that particular aiming point. He then announces both aiming point and range.

5. Instead of describing a sector as, for example, extending so many yards (or so many "fingers") north from the reference point, it is better to describe it as extending from the reference point northward for a definite distance, as "To that tall red house."

The last method is the best, because it leaves no room for guessing on the part of subordinates. So, remember it is always best, when possible, to define the limits of sectors physically, as, extending, for example, from "That house to that windmill," etc.

6. When acting as part of the battalion, always be sure to designate someone (usually one of the musicians) to watch for signals from the battalion commander, and don't fail to repeat back all signals.

7. In advancing by rushes, always allow sufficient time between rushes to recover the loss in fire caused by the cessation of fire. In other words, the next rear unit should not start forward until the one that has just advanced has resumed an effective fire.

8. Remember that in all field firing problems the distribution of hits has big weight. Consequently, it should be definitely understood beforehand, that, in the absence of any target designation by the company commander, each platoon leader will look after the sector corresponding to his front, and that each man will fire at the part of the sector corresponding to his front. Should the targets in a given sector disappear, then the platoon leader covering that sector will at once switch his fire to the adjoining sector until the reappearance of the targets in his own sector. For example, let us suppose the company sector, A-B (the company being on the defense and not advancing) is divided into four parts A-B, B-C, C-D and D-E. Platoon No. 1 would look after everything that appeared in D-E; No. 2, after everything that appeared in C-D; No. 3, everything that appeared in B-C; and No. 4, after everything that appeared in A-B.

Should the target suddenly disappear from D-E, then No. 1 would switch his fire over to C-D, and keep it there until the target reappeared in D-E, and if the targets disappeared from C-D, before reappearing in D-E, then both No. 1, and No. 2, would switch their fire cones to A-C.

1450. Exercises. The following exercises for the elementary training of individuals and squads were used with success by the troops mobilized on the Texas border:

TARGETS

1. The target will be represented by individual soldiers.

2. With reference to their visibility, the battlefield will present three classes of targets:

• (a) Those which are visible throughout.
• (b) Those which are visible in part.
• (c) Those which are invisible, but whose location might be described.

Targets will be arranged to simulate one of the classes enumerated. Instruction will begin with simple exercises in which the target presented is plainly visible, and represents only the objective of the unit undergoing instruction. It should progress to the more difficult exercises in which the target is invisible and the line of figures is prolonged to include the objective of units on the right or left.

3. The limits of indistinct targets may be shown to unit commanders by the use of company flags. These flags, however, will be withdrawn from sight before a description of the target or estimate of the range is attempted, and before anyone but the commander of the unit undergoing instruction sees their location.

4. At the conclusion of each exercise in which flags are used to mark the limits of the target or its subdivisions, they should be displayed, in order that any existing errors may be readily pointed out.

5. To determine proficiency in target designation, the instructor will provide a sufficient number of rifles, placed on sand bags or other suitable rests, and require those charged with fire direction and control to sight them at the limits of their objective. An inspection by the instructor will at once detect errors. Similarly, in those exercises in which all the members of the firing unit participate, the percentage of rifles aimed at the correct target may be determined.

6. In these exercises no method of communication will be permitted that could not be used under the conditions assumed in the problem.

EXERCISE NO. 1—RANGING

Object: To train the individual to set his sight quickly and accurately for the announced range and windage; and to accustom leaders to the giving of windage data.

Situation: The company is formed in single rank at the ready with rear sight set at zero and the slide screw normally tight.

Action: The range and windage are announced, sights are set accurately in accordance therewith and as rapidly as may be, each man coming to port arms immediately upon completing the operation.

Time: Time is taken from the last word of the command.

Standard: Sights should be correctly set within 15 seconds.

Note: Of the two elements, time and accuracy, accuracy is the more important.

Par. 411, I. D. R., implies complete use of the rear sight, that is, utilization of the wind gauge, and sight setting to the least reading of the rear sight leaf, i. e., 25 yards. Sight setting therefore in this exercise should include, more often than not, "fractional ranges" and windage data.

EXERCISE NO. 2—RANGING

Object: To familiarize officers and noncommissioned officers in the use of an auxiliary aiming point.

Situation: Two men with the company flags are stationed to mark the enemy's invisible position. This position should be suitably located with reference to a practicable aiming point.

Action: The markers are signaled to display their flags. An officer or noncommissioned officer is called up and the enemy's position is pointed out. The flags are then withdrawn and the officer or noncommissioned officer selects an auxiliary aiming point and gives his commands for firing at that point.

EXERCISE NO. 3—TARGET DESIGNATION

Object: To train the individual soldier to locate a target, from a description solely. To do so quickly and accurately and fire thereon with effect, and to train officers and noncommissioned officers in concise, accurate and clear description of targets.

Situation: The men are so placed as not to be able to see to the target. The instructor places himself so as to see the objective.

Action: The instructor, to one man at a time, describes the objective, and directs him to fire one simulated round. The man immediately moves so as to see the target, locates it, estimates the range and fires one simulated shot.

Standard: For ranges within battle sight, time 20 seconds; beyond battle sight, time 30 seconds. Not more than 15% error in the estimation of the range. Objective correctly located.

Note: Arrangements made so that the description of the target is heard by only the man about to fire. After firing the man will not mingle with those waiting to fire.

EXERCISE NO. 4—TARGET DESIGNATION

Object: To train the squad leader in promptly bringing the fire of his squad to bear effectively upon the target presented. To train the individuals of a squad to fire effectively from orders of the squad leader and automatically to obtain effective dispersion.

Situation: The squad is deployed, the squad leader being in the firing line. Position prone. A sighting rest is provided for each rifle.

Action: Upon the appearance of the target the squad leader gives the necessary orders for delivering an effective fire. The men under these orders sight their rifles and then rise. The instructor then examines the position and sighting of each rifle.

Time: Time is taken from the appearance of the target until the last man has risen.

Target: A squad of men to outline a partially concealed enemy emerges from cover, advances a short distance and lies down.

Standard: 90% of the rifles should be sighted in conformity with the orders of the squad leader and should evenly cover the whole front of the objective. The squad leader's estimate of the range should not be in error over 15%.

Note: The squad leader should not, in general, be allowed to divide the target into sectors but to obtain distribution by training the men to fire at that portion of the objective directly related to the position they occupy in their own line. The exercise should be repeated with the squad leader in rear of the squad and not firing. As to this, it is to be noted that Musketry School experiments prove that in small groups the directed fire of say seven (7) rifles is more effective than the partially undirected fire of eight rifles obtained when the group leader is himself firing.

EXERCISE NO. 5—COMMUNICATION

Object: To teach prompt and accurate transmission of firing data without cessation of fire, and also to teach automatic readjustment of fire distribution.

Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position and with sighting rests, is firing at a designated target.

Action: A squad with sights set at zero is deployed and brought up at the double time into the intervals of the firing line and halted. The firing data is transmitted to them without cessation of fire. At the command Rise, given 20 seconds after the command Halt, the first squad rises and retires a short distance to the rear. At the same time, the supports cease fire and adjust their rifles in the rests so as to be aimed at the target as they understand it. They then rise and their rifles are examined by the instructor for range and direction.

Standard: 80% of the rifles should be sighted according to the transmitted data and aimed according to the principles of fire distribution.

Target: One target equal to a squad front, which is increased to two squads prior to the arrival of the supports in the firing line.

Note: This exercise should be repeated with the supporting squad reënforcing on a flank. To determine whether the original squad is able to keep its assigned sector during an advance, this exercise should be repeated, the supports being thrown in after a series of short advances by the original squad. Care should be exercised to prevent the transmission of firing data in a manner under which service conditions would be impracticable. (See Exercise No. 6.)

EXERCISE NO. 6—COMMUNICATION

Object: To train the squad leader in receiving and transmitting instructions by visual signals alone.

Situation: A squad with its leader in the firing line is deployed in the prone position firing at will.

Action: The instructor, without sound or other cautionary means, signals (visually) to the squad leader at various intervals to,

The squad leader, upon receiving a signal, causes his squad to execute it without verbal command, or exposing himself.

Time: No specified time limit.

Standard: The squad leader should fire with his squad, but after each shot should look towards his platoon leader for any signal, then observe the fire and conduct of his men, then, after glancing again at his platoon leader, fire again. This the squad leader should do without exposing himself. By lying about a head's length ahead of his men he can see his squad front. In transmitting orders he can accomplish it by nudging the men on his right and left and signaling to them with his hand.

Note: This exercise is essential to prepare men for the deafening noise of a heavy action when speech or sound signals are largely futile.

EXERCISE NO. 7—FIRE DISCIPLINE

Object: To train men to carry out strictly the fire orders given them, and to refrain from starting, repeating or accepting any change therefrom without direct orders from a superior.

Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position.

Action: While the squad is firing at an indistinct but specified target, another and clearly visible target appears in the vicinity of the first target but not in the same sector. Upon the appearance of this second target, the instructor sees that the men continue firing at the assigned target. The corporal should check any breach of fire discipline.

Note: Variations of this exercise should be given to test the fire discipline of the men in other phases, such as rate of fire (Par. 147, I. D. R.), etc.