To adjust the sling for firing, the claw of the short strap is disengaged and reëngaged in the proper holes of the short strap, such adjustment as may be necessary being also made in the long strap (the arm loop).

1389. What the sling does. It does two things: (1) It steadies the rifle, and (2) helps to take up the recoil,—that is, to reduce the "kick."

Its use. There are a number of different methods of using the sling. Experiment with different ones until you find and decide upon the method best suited to you.

The sling should be used in all firing,—combat practice as well as at target practice.

Always adjust the sling so that it will be tight.

Have the arm loop no longer than is necessary to reach the middle of the small of the stock. When on the arm, have the lower end of the arm loop well up near the arm pit, with the keeper well pressed down so as to hold the loop fast.

Note the proper adjustments of the sling for the different firing positions,—that is, standing, sitting, kneeling, and prone, and mark the adjustments on the inside of the arm loop, "St" (standing), "Si" (Sitting), "K" (kneeling), and "P" (prone).

It is sometimes advisable to sew a piece of rope to your shirt sleeve to keep the sling from slipping down.

1390. To put on the sling. 1. Put your left hand in the loop, twisting the sling to the left, A, Fig. 38, and holding the rifle with the right hand as shown in the figure. Twisting the sling to the left causes a flat surface instead of the cutting edge of the sling to rest against the wrist.

2. Extend the arm on through the loop, (Fig. 39), bringing the loop well up near the pit of the arm, grasping the piece with the left hand, and pressing down keeper, A.

3. Place left hand between the sling and piece, (Fig. 40), the hand being pressed well forward toward the upper sling swivel, A. Notice how the back of the hand is resting against the flat of the sling.

4. Come to the position of aim, Fig. 41. Pressure is applied to the sling by pressing forward the left hand, and holding the rifle to the shoulder with the right hand. Remember that whatever pressure you apply must be the same for each shot.

Notice (Figs. 41 and 42) how well forward the left hand is, and how the flat of the sling is resting against the wrist and back of hand. See how the short strap, C, (Fig. 41), of the sling is correctly loose.

The thumb should be held along the stock as shown (A) in Fig. 42.

1391. Designation of winds. Winds are designated as "12 o'clock," "1 o'clock," "2 o'clock," etc., winds, depending on the direction from which they come.

Imagine the firing point to be in the middle of the face of a clock and the target to be at 12 o'clock; 3 o'clock will be on your right, 9 o'clock on your left, 6 o'clock in your rear and 12 in your front.

A wind blowing from your right to your left is called a 3 o'clock wind; one blowing from your rear is called a 6 o'clock wind; one from your front, 12 o'clock wind, etc.

The score-books issued by the Ordnance Department have windage charts that have been carefully worked out and all you have to do is this: Estimate the force of the wind in miles per hour, and determine the direction from which it comes (whether a 9 o'clock wind, a 2 o'clock wind, etc.). Then look at the windage chart and see just how much windage you must take.

The simplest and best rule for the beginner is for him to make his estimate and then ask an experienced shot what windage to use, checking this up with what he found on the windage chart. In this way he soon learns to estimate for himself.

Practice estimating the wind. Ask a man who has been making 5's and 4's what windage he used and check up with your own estimate.

You can find out the direction of the wind by watching smoke, grass or the limbs of trees.

Throw up some small straws and watch which way they are blown, or wet your finger and hold it up. The wind cools the side it strikes.

A 12 o'clock wind slows up the bullet and a 6 o'clock wind helps it along,—so, in the first case you would need more elevation and in the second less elevation.

1392. The zero of a rifle. The twist of the bullet given by the rifling of the barrel causes the bullet to move to right, which movement, called "the drift," is compensated by having the slot in the rear sight for the drift slide, slope to the left. However, in some rifles the compensation is too great and in others it is not enough.

That reading of the wind gauge necessary to overcome the drift of a rifle at a particular range is called the "zero" of that rifle for that range, and all allowances for wind should be calculated from this reading.

The "zero" of a rifle is found by shooting it on a perfectly calm day.

1393. Estimating distance. Ability to estimate distances correctly is an important part of a soldier's education.

While it is true that fire on the battlefield will usually be by groups and the ranges will be given by officers, the battlefield is reached only after a long series of experiences in scouting, patrolling, and outpost duty, in which the soldier is frequently placed in positions where it is necessary that he shall determine for himself the range to be used in order that his fire may be effective.

There are different methods of estimating the range (for example, by sound, trial shots, range-finding instruments, etc.), but the only ones that the average soldier need know are those of estimating distance by the eye and by trial shots.

To estimate distance by the eye with accuracy, it is necessary to be familiar with the appearance, as to length, of a unit of measure which can be compared mentally with the distance which is to be estimated. The most convenient unit of length is 100 yards. To impress upon the soldier the extent of a stretch of 100 yards two posts 100 yards apart, with short stakes between to mark each 25 yards, should be placed near the barracks, or on the drill ground, and the soldier required to pace off the marked distance several times, counting his steps. He will thus learn how many of his steps make 100 yards and will become familiar with the appearance of the whole distance and of its fractional parts.

Next a distance of more than 100 yards will be shown him and he will be required to compare this distance with the 100-yard unit and to estimate it. Having made his estimate, he will be required to verify its accuracy by pacing the distance.

A few minutes each day should be spent in this practice, the soldier often being required to make his estimate by raising his rear-sight leaf and showing it to the instructor. After the first drills the soldier should be required to pace the distance only when the estimate is unusually inaccurate.

The soldier should be taught that, in judging the distance from the enemy, his estimate may be corrected by a careful observation of the clearness with which details of dress, the movements of limbs or of the files in a line may be seen. In order to derive the benefit of this method, the soldier will be required to observe closely all the details noted above in single men or squads of men posted at varying distances, which will be measured and announced.

Although the standing and kneeling silhouettes used in field practice afford good objects upon which to estimate distances, the instructor should make frequent use of living figures and natural objects, as this is the class of targets from which the soldier will be compelled to estimate his range in active service.

1394. Methods of estimating long distances by the eye. The following methods are found useful:

(a) The soldier may decide that the object cannot be more than a certain distance away nor less than a certain distance; his estimates must be kept within the closest possible limits and the mean of the two taken as the range.

(b) The soldier selects a point which he considers the middle point of the whole distance, estimates this half distance and doubles it, or he similarly divides the distance into a certain number of lengths which are familiar to him.

(c) The soldier estimates the distance along a parallel line, as a road on one side, having on it well-defined objects.

(d) The soldier takes the mean of several estimates made by different persons. This method is not applicable to instruction.

1395. Determination of distance by trial shots or volleys. If the ground is so dry or dusty that the fall of the bullets is visible to the naked eye or through a field glass, distance may be determined by using a number of trial shots or volleys.

In the case of individual trial shots, the soldier sets his sight at the estimated range, watching to see where the bullet strikes,—or some other man, with or without field glasses, may watch to see where it strikes. If the bullet strikes beyond the target, the estimated sight setting is decreased; if it falls short, the sight setting is increased.

In case of volleys, the sights are set at the estimated range and a volley is fired. If it appears to strike a little short of the mark, an increase in elevation of 100 yards is used for the next volley. When we have the target inclosed between two volleys, we take the mean of the estimated ranges for the correct range. For example, if the first estimated range were 1000 and the second 1100, the correct range would be 1050.

1396. Appearance of objects: How modified by varying conditions of light; difference of level, etc. During instruction the men should be taught the effect of varying conditions of light and terrain upon the apparent distance of an object.

Objects seem nearer—

(a) When the object is in a bright light.

(b) When the color of the object contrasts sharply with the color of the background.

(c) When looking over water, snow, or a uniform surface like a wheat field.

(d) When looking from a height downward.

(e) In the clear atmosphere of high altitudes.

Objects seem more distant—

(a) When looking over a depression in the ground.

(b) When there is a poor light or a fog.

(c) When only a small part of the object can be seen.

(d) When looking from low ground upward toward higher ground.

1397. Effect of heat and cold. Heat causes shots to strike high, and cold causes them to strike low.

Therefore, if you shot on a warm day and made 5's, and recorded temperature and other conditions in your score-book, you would know on looking at your score sheets that you should raise your elevation, if you were firing on a cold day.

1398. Effect of moisture. Dampness causes shots to strike high and dryness causes them to strike low. Therefore, on damp days take lower elevations than on dry days.

1399. Effect of light. Light affects the aiming without the beginner knowing it. It does not, however, affect the travel of the bullet.

A dark target causes a tendency to aim farther below the bull's-eye than if the target were bright. Therefore, use higher elevations with dark targets. As it gets darker, higher elevations should be used.

If you always aim carefully and correctly the light will have little effect on your aiming,—that is, if your eyesight is good.

If you are shooting in a dull light and a bright sun comes out, say on your right, there is a tendency to move the front sight to the opposite (left) side of the rear sight notch, since the near (right) edge is shaded and obscured somewhat. Therefore 1/4 to 1/2 windage into the sun (right in this case) should be taken to overcome this.

In using battle sight, hold higher for a bright light.

We also raise our sights if a strong sun comes out. Therefore, we have this rule: Move your rear sight into the sun, just as you do for a wind,—and raise your elevation.

1400. Mirage gives a wavering appearance to the target. It is heated air that is moving. It is sometimes called "heat waves."

With the wind between 2 and 14 miles an hour on clear, hot days the waves can be seen moving across the target.

When there is no wind or a light six o'clock wind, the waves go straight up, or "boil." Never fire when the mirage is boiling,—wait for it to move from one side to the other and then take windage to correct for it.

1401. Summary of temperature, light and moisture effects:

1402. Firing with bayonet fixed. In firing with bayonet fixed usually a lower point on the target will be struck, corresponding to a reduction of about 50 yards in the range.

1403. Care of rifle. Since the accuracy of a soldier's rifle has a most important bearing on his shooting, and since the proper care of a rifle affects its accuracy, the care of the rifle is an important subject in which every soldier should be thoroughly instructed. The subject is fully covered in the preceding chapter. (Chapter XV, Part I).

COLLECTIVE INSTRUCTION

(Combat practice)

1404. General scheme. While individual instruction is most important, it is not everything. The maximum effect of fire in battle is obtained when a command, as a whole, is a pliable, manageable, effective instrument in the hands of a commander who can use it intelligently and efficiently. Therefore, the two objects to be obtained are:

1. To make the command a pliable, manageable, effective instrument in the hands of its commander.

2. To train and instruct the commander so that he will know how to use this instrument in an intelligent and efficient manner.

1405. To make the fire unit a pliable, manageable, efficient instrument. In order that a unit may be a pliable, manageable, efficient instrument in the hands of its commander, he must be able to control the unit absolutely,—that is to say, not only must the individuals composing the unit be so trained that they will respond at once, even in the din and confusion of battle, to the will of the commander, as expressed by his orders, but they must also be so instructed and disciplined that they can, as individual parts of the unit, perform their functions efficiently. This is accomplished by fire discipline.

1406. Fire discipline. By fire discipline is meant a habit of obedience, a control of the rifle, and a display of intelligence, all the result of training, which will enable the soldier in action to make hits instead of misses. It embraces taking advantage of the ground; care in setting the sight and delivery of fire, including proper fire distribution; constant attention to the orders of the leaders and careful observation of the enemy; an increase of fire when the target is favorable, and a cessation of fire when the enemy disappears; economy of ammunition.

1407. To train and instruct the commander to use the unit with intelligence and efficiency. In order to handle the unit with intelligence and efficiency, utilizing to the greatest extent possible the power of all the rifles under his command, not only must the commander be able to control the unit, having it respond at once to his every command, but he must also know tactics, and be thoroughly familiar with the technical principles of infantry fire.

1408. Combat exercises. A combat exercise consists of the application of tactical principles to certain assumed battle situation, in the execution of which are employed the appropriate formations and movements of close and extended order drill, and in which, as a rule, ball cartridges are used in firing at the targets.

By means of combat exercises, the unit commanders are trained and instructed in applying tactical principles, in controlling and directing the fire of their units and the men are trained and instructed in fire discipline.

The tactical principles applicable to combat exercises are covered in the Infantry Drill Regulations, under the headings of "Fire" and "Combat."

1409. Technical principles of firing. The technical principles of firing are given in detail in the Small-Arms Firing Manual, a summary of which is given below under the headings of, The Effect of Fire, The Influence of the Ground, and The Adjustment of Fire.

The Effect of Fire

1410. Ballistic qualities of the rifle. The accuracy of a rifle, the flatness of its trajectory, and its disabling power,—that is, the power it has to disable the enemy,—are called its ballistic qualities.

The accuracy of the U. S. Springfield rifle, caliber .30, model of 1903, is very high,—probably superior to that of any other military rifle.

The flatness of trajectory is dependent upon the muzzle velocity, and, to some extent, upon the form of the bullet. Our bullet is pointed and the muzzle velocity is 2700 feet per second, which is a very high muzzle velocity.

Two rifles of different type may be equally accurate, but the accuracy of the one having the flatter trajectory will, naturally, be less affected by slight errors in sight setting.

Again, another advantage of the rifle with the flatter trajectory is that it holds more ground under its fire. For example, take our service rifle: At a range of 500 yards, the bullet, at the highest point in its trajectory or line of flight, is 2 feet above the line of sight. It is, therefore, apparent that if the bottom of an object 2 feet or greater, is aimed at, it would be struck if it were anywhere under 500 yards. Now, take a rifle with a very curved trajectory, say one whose bullet, at the highest point of the trajectory corresponding to a range of 500 yards, is 10 feet above the line of sight. There will be a large extent of ground between the target and the rifle that is not danger space for a target 2 feet above the line of sight. Hence, we see that the rifle with the flatter trajectory is better.

The continuous danger space afforded by the flat trajectory of our service rifle enables us to adopt a universal sight for all ranges up to 500 yards,—that is, the battle sight, which is the rear sight ready for use when the sight leaf is laid down.

1411. Cone of fire or cone of dispersion. If a body of soldiers fire at the same target the bullets will not, of course, follow the same path, but will be scattered. This is due to differences in sights, parts of the rifle, ammunition, and to a greater extent, to the individual errors of the soldiers in aiming and firing.

The trajectories or paths of the bullets considered together form a horn-shaped figure or cone, called the Cone of fire or cone of dispersion. (See Fig. 44.)

1412. Shot group and center of impact. If the cone of fire be intercepted by a target (for example, A O, Fig. 44) at right angles to the axis of the cone, the shot holes will make a pattern or group called the shot group, the holes being the thickest approximately in the center of the group, called the center of impact. From this point in all directions the density of the grouping decreases progressively,—at first gradually, then more rapidly, out to the limits of the group.

Naturally, the size of the cone of fire and of the shot group vary with the skill of those firing, good shots making a small cone and small group, and poor shots a large cone and large group.

1413. Beaten zone. The intersection of the cone of dispersion with the surface of the ground is called the beaten zone.

If the surface of the ground is horizontal, the form of the beaten zone is that of an ellipse with its longer axis in the direction of the line of fire, as shown in Fig. 45.

In view of the fact that at the long ranges the angle of fall of the bullets is much greater than at short ranges, it follows that at short ranges the elliptical figure (beaten zone) is much more elongated than at long ranges. In other words, the longer the range, the shorter is the depth of the beaten zone. This is shown in Fig. 45.

1414. Uncertainty and ineffectiveness of long-range fire. It follows from what has been said, that as the range increases the length of the beaten zone decreases,—that is, a less depth of ground is held under fire. That being the case, if an error is made in sight setting due, for example, to an incorrect estimate of the range, the proportionate loss of fire effect due to misplacement of the center of impact will be greater as the beaten zone is less,—that is, as the range is greater.

Furthermore, the difficulty of exact range determination increases with the distance, the two influences combining to make long-range fire uncertain and usually ineffective.

1415. Zone of effective fire. That portion of the ground which contains the best 75 per cent of the shots in the beaten zone, is called the zone of effective fire.

Effectiveness of Fire

1416. Factors involved. The effectiveness of fire depends upon these three factors:

• (1) The percentage of hits made;
• (2) The number of targets hit;
• (3) The time of execution.

That is to say, the effectiveness of fire is determined by the number of enemies disabled or targets hit in a given time.

1417. Percentage of hits. By the percentage of hits is meant the proportion of all the bullets fired that hit the targets. For example, if 1000 bullets are fired and 750 hit the targets, then the percentage of hits is 75.

The percentage of hits depends upon the dispersion, and this is influenced by the precision of the arm, the range, the visibility of the target, the atmospheric conditions, the training and instruction of the troops, and upon their physical and moral state at the time. In addition, the percentage of hits also depends upon the character of the ground as favoring ricochet hits, upon the correct estimation of the range and the proper designation of the target.

1418. Number of targets hit. The number of targets hit,—that is, the distribution of fire,—may be affected by varying degrees of visibility, as men instinctively choose the more conspicuous marks as aiming points. Under any circumstances, a poor distribution of the hits made will be due to an absence of proper instructions from the leaders; or, in other words, to poor control, or else to a want of understanding or lack of obedience on the part of the men.

1419. Time of execution. The time of execution is important in that the gaining of fire superiority is dependent less upon obtaining high percentages of hits than upon making an absolutely large number of hits in a unit of time. There is necessarily a limit to the rapidity of fire which, if exceeded, will result in some loss of accuracy. With targets of a fair degree of visibility, the following may be taken as standard rates of fire for troops who have been given suitable training in target practice:

The rates given should not exclude higher rates of fire in the case of large and conspicuous targets. On the other hand, when objectives, or marks used as aiming points, are very indistinct, the requirement of correct aiming imposes rates of fire somewhat lower than the standard rates given even for well-instructed men.

With imperfectly trained men who have not fully acquired the habit of using aimed fire only, and who are lacking in the manual dexterity required for executing the standard rates of fire, the maximum rate can not well exceed six shots per minute without incurring the danger of lapsing into unaimed fire.

Fatigue and exhaustion, the results of marches or prolonged firing, have a detrimental influence and tend to lower the rates of effective fire.

Influence of Ground

1420. Defilade. If we will consider a bullet just grazing the top of an impenetrable obstacle (like "A," Fig. 46), the space from the top of such obstacle to where the bullet strikes the ground (space B E, Fig. 46) will be protected from fire. Such space is called, "defiladed space." Its extent will, of course, depend on the height of the obstacle, the curvature of the trajectory and the slope of the ground in rear of the obstacles.

1421. Rising and falling ground. The influence of the ground upon the effect of fire is at once seen by studying Fig. 44.

If the ground rises, as shown by B O and A O, the depth of the beaten zone (and consequently the effect of fire) decreases. On the other hand, if the ground falls (up to a certain point), the depth of the beaten zone (and consequently the effect of fire) increases.

1422. Depth of beaten zone affects only targets having depth. It should be remembered that depth of beaten zone can affect only targets which have depth.

On a target in the form of a line,—a line of skirmishers, for example,—the depth of the beaten zone has no effect one way or the other. If such a target, however, is backed up by supports and reserves, the depth of the beaten zone may have a decided effect on them, depending upon their distance in rear of the line forming the target and the slope of the ground in rear of such target.

In this connection, attention is invited to Fig. 47, which shows how in the case of a fire delivered from a height at a target on a horizontal plane beneath, the beaten zone is shortened and consequently the fire effect decreased.

An example of increasing the depth of beaten zone is seen in Fig. 48, which shows a fire delivered from low ground at a target on the edge of a plateau or crest of a ridge from which the ground slopes to the rear.

1423. Grazing fire. Shots which pass over a crest with an angle of fall conforming, or nearly conforming, to the slope of the ground beyond the edge of the crest (as shown in Fig. 48), are called grazing shots and fire so delivered is called grazing fire.

1424. Diminution or increase in fire effect due to rising and falling ground. In connection with the diminution or increase in fire effect due to rising and falling ground, attention is invited to the following:

1. If the ground slopes upward to the rear from a firing line, the supports may be placed closer without increasing the danger from fire aimed at the firing line.

2. When the ground slopes down and to the rear from the firing line forming the target, the supports must be posted at a greater distance in rear, unless the slope is so much greater than the angle of fall of the hostile bullets that a defiladed space is created in which no bullets strike, in which case the supports may be brought up close to the crest.

3. On ground rising with respect to the line of sight, column targets (i. e., having depth) will suffer greater losses than lineal targets.

4. On ground falling with respect to the line of sight, the reverse slope of hills or the level grounds of plateaus, line targets will suffer the greater losses.

1425. Ricochet shots. When a bullet strikes any surface and is deflected it is called a ricochet shot.

Not only do bullets that ricochet usually tumble after striking, but they are also mutilated, so that wounds inflicted by ricochet hits are usually severe.

The most favorable ground for ricochets is a smooth, hard, horizontal surface, the aim being low, the chance of ricochets in sand is very slight.

1426. Occupation of ground. The question of the occupation of ground presents these two aspects:

1. What firing positions may be chosen which will tend to increase the losses of the enemy?

2. What positions may be chosen and formations adopted to minimize our own losses?

The selection of a defensive position presents this question: Shall it be near the crest or well down the slope?

A position well down the slope

Advantages:

1. The depth of the beaten zone for fire delivered from the position is increased and the upper portion of the cone of fire will include the supports and reserves advancing to reënforce the hostile firing line. That is to say, the fire will be a grazing fire.

2. It eliminates dead spaces that might otherwise exist at the bottom of the slope.

3. The hostile fire being directed against a point well down the slope, the high ground in rear will interpose as a defilade and intercept the upper portion of the cone of fire which might otherwise take effect on the supports and reserves behind the crest.

Disadvantages:

1. It makes withdrawal difficult in case it becomes necessary to fall back.

2. It is difficult to reënforce the firing line.

A position near the crest

Advantages:

1. It favors observation of the enemy.

2. It makes withdrawal easy in case it becomes necessary to fall back.

3. It is easy to reënforce the firing line by the supports advancing from behind the crest.

Disadvantages:

1. The depth of the beaten zone is decreased and consequently the cone of fire will probably not include the supports and reserves advancing to reënforce the hostile firing fire. In other words, the fire will be a plunging fire.

2. It is likely to result in dead spaces at the bottom of the slope.

3. It affords a good target for the hostile artillery.

Whether or not a position near the crest or a position down the slope should be chosen, depends, in each case, upon circumstances.

For instance in a rear guard action, where a determined stand is not contemplated, a position near the crest would be occupied. On the other hand, if a determined stand were contemplated, the terrain offered good opportunity for the delivery of an effective grazing fire, and we had reason to believe that we were going to be subjected to heavy artillery fire, a position at the foot of the slope would be selected.

However, it may be said that, in general, a defensive position should be near the bottom of the slope.

1427. Gentle reverse slopes. From the point of view of avoiding losses, all gentle reverse slopes are dangerous and are to be avoided when possible.

When necessary to traverse or to occupy such ground, precautions must be taken to protect the reserves or other bodies of troops by placing them on the flanks; by disposing them in formations with a narrow front; by causing them to lie down; by the construction of suitable shelter, and by avoiding useless movements.

Adjustment of Fire

1428. Fire at stationary targets. The correct adjustment of fire is attained by causing the center of impact to fall on the center of the target. This is the problem constantly presented in combat firing.

The two important elements entering into this problem are, (1) the commander and (2) the troops. When a body of troops has aimed correctly at the target indicated, with the elevation ordered and has fired with steadiness, it has done all that can be expected of it, but that is not sufficient; for, if the commander, by giving the wrong sight-setting, for example, has failed to cause the center of impact to fall on the center, of the target, the result may be nothing. Hence the vital importance of knowing and announcing the correct range.

It is known that good shots make a small group and poor shots a large group, average shots making a group of intermediate size.

It is frequently stated that troops composed of good shots are not so effective in collective firing as poorer shots. How is this possible? The explanation is simple. The shot group of the good shots is small and if misplaced by an error in range estimation few hits result while the shot group of poorer shots, being larger, is not so much affected by the same error in range estimation, will cover the ground, and probably hit more figures. This, of course, is only true when a considerable error has been made in estimating the range.

As battle targets are mostly line targets, a displacement to the right or left does not amount to much, but an error in depth (range), as stated before, is serious. Thus we, see that the correct determination of the range is very important.

1429. Determination of range. The range may be determined, with only a small error, by a range finder. There are several other methods, as, for instance, by trial shots,—the dust thrown up by the bullet showing whether the range is too short or too great,—by sound, by the appearance of objects, etc., but except in deliberately prepared defensive positions, estimating by eye will be the most practicable method of estimating the range. For all practical purposes a very satisfactory result will be obtained by taking the average estimates of several trained men.

In observing the effect of the fire the ground may be wet, or covered with turf, sod or brush in which no signs of striking shots can be seen. By careful use of good field glasses some indication of the place where the shots are going, may be obtained. The actions of the enemy may often indicate whether the fire is effective or not.

1430. Combined sights. All other means failing, combined sights may be resorted to. By this is meant firing part of the troops with sights set at one range and part with a range greater or less by 100 yards or more. This increases the beaten zone and will generally assure a certain amount of fire effect. This method is seldom used under 500 yards.

1431. Auxiliary aiming points. It frequently happens that the target is so well concealed that it is invisible. In this case some well defined object in front or behind it must be used as an aiming target, and the range given so that the beaten zone will include the actual target at its center.

1432. Fire at moving targets. In firing at a moving enemy, a beaten zone must be established immediately in front, his forward movement into this zone completing the adjustment of fire. Due to the chance of overestimating the range, a sight-setting must be taken well under the estimated range (usually about 200 yards against advancing infantry).

When the fire becomes effective, as may be judged by the actions and movements of the enemy, the rate of fire should be quickened in order to increase the effect of the fire.

Frequent changes of sight not only cause a loss of time, but they also multiply chances of error in sight-setting. Changes in sight-setting against advancing infantry should not be less than 200 yards at a time, that is to say, when the enemy has passed through the zone of effective fire, the sight should be lowered 200 yards and the operation repeated until the battle-sight zone is reached, when the rear-sight leaf is thrown down and no other sight manipulation is made.

Against skirmish lines advancing by rushes, the sight-setting should not be changed during a rush, but it should be done at the halts, so that the greater vulnerability of the targets presented during the rush may be taken advantage of.

Against retreating infantry, use the estimated range, and when the target appears to have passed beyond the zone of effective fire, add 200 yards to the sight-setting.

Against attacking cavalry, due to the rapidity of the advance, there will not usually be time for sight manipulation other than throwing down the rear-sight leaf, so that the battle should be resorted to at all ranges.

In firing at a target moving across the line of fire it is desirable, on account of the confusion caused thereby, to hit the head of the column. It is necessary, therefore, to hold to the front a distance sufficient to allow for the time of flight and the rate of march. This will be accomplished by the observance of the following rough rules:

1. Against infantry, hold against the head of the marching column;

2. Against cavalry at a trot, hold to the front 1 yard for every 100 yards of range; and at a gallop, 2 yards for every 100 yards of range.

1433. Night firing. In night firing it is almost impossible to adjust the fire by ordinary means.

In night attacks the purpose of the offensive is to gain rapidly and quietly a position where the issue may be decided in a hand to hand encounter, or a position from which the superiority of fire may be gained at daylight. For the offensive, therefore, fire action is a subordinate consideration.

On the defensive, when a night attack is apprehended, preparations should be made to sweep with fire the ground immediately in front over which the assailant must advance.

Special arrangements may sometimes be made for resting rifles on the parapet, so that the ground in front will be suitably covered. A solid support is necessary for maintaining the proper direction of the pieces during firing. For this purpose notched boards or timbers are convenient. The arrangements should be such that the operations of loading and firing may be performed without removing the rifles from the support.

Searchlight illumination may reveal the position and movements of the enemy sufficiently well to permit the use of the sights. In night operations of small parties fire may be well directed when a bright, well-defined light, such as a camp fire, is presented as an aiming point. In such a case a slight illumination of the front sight is required.

Fire Direction and Control

1434. General. As stated before in substance, the maximum effect of fire can be gotten only by instructed and disciplined troops under a commander capable of directing and controlling their fire properly.

The fire of a company may be likened to spraying water from a hose, and as the fireman can shift his stream of water from one point to the other with certainty, being able to direct and control it with promptness and accuracy, so should the company commander be able to switch the cone of fire of his company from one target to another, having it at all times under direction and control. In other words, as the pliable, manageable hose responds to the will of the fireman, so should the company be so trained and instructed that it will respond to the will of the company commander on the firing line, in the midst of the noise and confusion of battle. No one except a man who has been in battle can realize how great are the noise and confusion, and how necessary and important are coöperation, team-work, discipline, and communication, in order for a company commander to control and direct the fire of the company—there must be absolute coöperation, team-work, and communication between all parts of the company—between the captain and the platoon leaders, the platoon leaders and the squad leaders, and the squad leaders and the members of their squads. Each and every man must know and do his part and endeavor all he can to keep in touch with and help the others. Now, the foundation of team-work and coöperation, is communication—communication between the company commander and the men on the firing line—the means by which, the medium through which he will make known his will to the men on the firing line. As stated before, because of the noise and confusion on the firing line this is no easy matter. The ideal way would be for the company commander to control the company by communicating direct with every man on the firing line, as graphically shown on the following page: