Maui and Yama
The New Zealand myth of the Origin of Death is pretty well known, as Dr. Tylor has seen in it the remnants of a solar myth, and has given it a ‘solar’ explanation. It is an audacious thing to differ from so cautious and learned an anthropologist as Dr. Tylor, but I venture to give my reasons for dissenting in this case from the view of the author of Primitive Culture (i. 335). Maui is the great hero of Maori mythology. He was not precisely a god, still less was he one of the early elemental gods, yet we can scarcely regard him as a man. He rather answers to one of the race of Titans, and especially to Prometheus, the son of a Titan. Maui was prematurely born, and his mother thought the child would be no credit to her already numerous and promising family. She therefore (as native women too often did in the South-Sea Islands) tied him up in her long tresses and tossed him out to sea. The gales brought him back to shore: one of his grandparents carried him home, and he became much the most illustrious and successful of his household. So far Maui had the luck which so commonly attends the youngest and least-considered child in folklore and mythology. This feature in his myth may be a result of the very widespread custom of jüngsten Recht (Borough English), by which the youngest child is heir at least of the family hearth. Now, unluckily, at the baptism of Maui (for a pagan form of baptism is a Maori ceremony) his father omitted some of the Karakias, or ritual utterances proper to be used on such occasions. This was the fatal original mistake whence came man’s liability to death, for hitherto men had been immortal. So far, what is there ‘solar’ about Maui? Who are the sun’s brethren?—and Maui had many. How could the sun catch the sun in a snare, and beat him so as to make him lame? This was one of Maui’s feats, for he meant to prevent the sun from running too fast through the sky. Maui brought fire, indeed, from the under-world, as Prometheus stole it from the upper-world; but many men and many beasts do as much as the myths of the world, and it is hard to see how the exploit gives Maui ‘a solar character.’ Maui invented barbs for hooks, and other appurtenances of early civilisation, with which the sun has no more to do than with patent safety-matches. His last feat was to attempt to secure human immortality for ever. There are various legends on this subject.
Maui Myths
Some say Maui noticed that the sun and moon rose again from their daily death, by virtue of a fountain in Hades (Hine-nui-te-po) where they bathed. Others say he wished to kill Hine-nui-te-po (conceived of as a woman) and to carry off her heart. Whatever the reason, Maui was to be swallowed up in the giant frame of Hades, or Night, and, if he escaped alive, Death would never have power over men. He made the desperate adventure, and would have succeeded but for the folly of one of the birds which accompanied him. This little bird, which sings at sunset, burst out laughing inopportunely, wakened Hine-nui-te-po, and she crushed to death Maui and all hopes of earthly immortality. Had he only come forth alive, men would have been deathless. Now, except that the bird which laughed sings at sunset, what is there ‘solar’ in all this? The sun does daily what Maui failed to do, {190a} passes through darkness and death back into light and life. Not only does the sun daily succeed where Maui failed, but it was his observation of this fact which encouraged Maui to risk the adventure. If Maui were the sun, we should all be immortal, for Maui’s ordeal is daily achieved by the sun. But Dr. Tylor says: {190b} ‘It is seldom that solar characteristics are more distinctly marked in the several details of a myth than they are here.’ To us the characteristics seem to be precisely the reverse of solar. Throughout the cycle of Maui he is constantly set in direct opposition to the sun, and the very point of the final legend is that what the sun could do Maui could not. Literally the one common point between Maui and the sun is that the little bird, the tiwakawaka, which sings at the daily death of day, sang at the eternal death of Maui.
Without pausing to consider the Tongan myth of the Origin of Death, we may go on to investigate the legends of the Aryan races. According to the Satapatha Brahmana, Death was made, like the gods and other creatures, by a being named Prajapati. Now of Prajapati, half was mortal, half was immortal. With his mortal half he feared Death, and concealed himself from Death in earth and water. Death said to the gods, ‘What hath become of him who created us?’ They answered, ‘Fearing thee, hath he entered the earth.’ The gods and Prajapati now freed themselves from the dominion of Death by celebrating an enormous number of sacrifices. Death was chagrined by their escape from the ‘nets and clubs’ which he carries in the Aitareya Brahmana. ‘As you have escaped me, so will men also escape,’ he grumbled. The gods appeased him by the promise that, in the body, no man henceforth for ever should evade Death. ‘Every one who is to become immortal shall do so by first parting with his body.’
Yama
Among the Aryans of India, as we have already seen, Death has a protomartyr, Tama, ‘the first of men who reached the river, spying out a path for many.’ In spying the path Yama corresponds to Tangaro the Fool, in the myth of the Solomon Islands. But Yama is not regarded as a maleficent being, like Tangaro. The Rig Veda (x. 14) speaks of him as ‘King Yama, who departed to the mighty streams and sought out a road for many;’ and again, the Atharva Veda names him ‘the first of men who died, and the first who departed to the celestial world.’ With him the Blessed Fathers dwell for ever in happiness. Mr. Max Müller, as we said, takes Yama to be ‘a character suggested by the setting sun’—a claim which is also put forward, as we have seen, for the Maori hero Maui. It is Yama, according to the Rig Veda, who sends the birds—a pigeon is one of his messengers (compare the White Bird of the Oxenhams)—as warnings of approaching death. Among the Iranian race, Yima appears to have been the counterpart of the Vedic Yama. He is now King of the Blessed; originally he was the first of men over whom Death won his earliest victory.
Inferences
That Yama is mixed up with the sun, in the Rig Veda, seems certain enough. Most phenomena, most gods, shade into each other in the Vedic hymns. But it is plain that the conception of a ‘first man who died’ is as common to many races as it is natural. Death was regarded as unnatural, yet here it is among us. How did it come? By somebody dying first, and establishing a bad precedent. But need that somebody have been originally the sun, as Mr. Max Müller and Dr. Tylor think in the cases of Yama and Maui? This is a point on which we may remain in doubt, for death in itself was certain to challenge inquiry among savage philosophers, and to be explained by a human rather than by a solar myth. Human, too, rather than a result of ‘disease of language’ is, probably, the myth of the Fire-stealer.
The Stealing of Fire
The world-wide myth explaining how man first became possessed of fire—namely, by stealing it—might well serve as a touchstone of the philological and anthropological methods. To Mr. Max Müller the interest of the story will certainly consist in discovering connections between Greek and Sanskrit names of fire-gods and of fire bringing heroes. He will not compare the fire-myths of other races all over the world, nor will he even try to explain why—in almost all of these myths we find a thief of fire, a Fire-stealer. This does not seem satisfactory to the anthropologist, whose first curiosity is to know why fire is everywhere said to have been obtained for men by sly theft or ‘flat burglary.’ Of course it is obvious that a myth found in Australia and America cannot possibly be the result of disease of Aryan languages not spoken in those two continents. The myth of fire-stealing must necessarily have some other origin.
‘Fire Totems’
Mr. Max Müller, after a treatise on Agni and other fire-gods, consecrates two pages to ‘Fire Totems.’ ‘If we are assured that there are some dark points left, and that these might be illustrated and rendered more intelligible by what are called fire totems among the Red Indians of North America, let us have as much light as we can get’ (ii. 804). Alas! I never heard of fire totems before. Probably some one has been writing about them, somewhere, unless we owe them to Mr. Max Müller’s own researches. Of course, he cites no authority for his fire totems. ‘The fire totem, we are told, would thus naturally have become the god of the Indians.’ ‘We are told’—where, and by whom? Not a hint is given on the subject, so we must leave the doctrine of fire totems to its mysterious discoverer. ‘If others prefer to call Prometheus a fire totem, no one would object, if only it would help us to a better understanding of Prometheus’ (ii. 810). Who are the ‘others’ who speak of a Greek ‘culture-hero’ by the impossibly fantastic name of ‘a fire totem’?
Prometheus
Mr. Max Müller ‘follows Kuhn’ in his explanation of Prometheus, the Fire-stealer, but he does not follow him all the way. Kuhn tried to account for the myth that Prometheus stole fire, and Mr. Max Müller does not try. {194} Kuhn connects Prometheus with the Sanskrit pramantha, the stick used in producing fire by drilling a pointed into a flat piece of wood. The Greeks, of course, made Prometheus mean ‘foresighted,’ providens; but let it be granted that the Germans know better. Pramantha next is associated with the verb mathnami, ‘to rub or grind;’ and that, again, with Greek μανθανω, ‘to learn.’ We too talk of a student as a ‘grinder,’ by a coincidence. The root manth likewise means ‘to rob;’ and we can see in English how a fire-stick, a ‘fire-rubber,’ might become a ‘fire-robber,’ a stealer of fire. A somewhat similar confusion in old Aryan languages converted the fire-stick into a person, the thief of fire, Prometheus; while a Greek misunderstanding gave to Prometheus (pramantha, ‘fire-stick’) the meaning of ‘foresighted,’ with the word for prudent foresight, προμηθεια. This, roughly stated, is the view of Kuhn. {195a} Mr. Max Müller concludes that Prometheus, the producer of fire, is also the fire-god, a representative of Agni, and necessarily ‘of the inevitable Dawn’—‘of Agni as the deus matutinus, a frequent character of the Vedic Agni, the Agni aushasa, or the daybreak’ (ii. 813).
But Mr. Max Müller does not say one word about Prometheus as the Fire-stealer. Now, that he stole fire is of the essence of his myth; and this myth of the original procuring of fire by theft occurs all over the world. As Australian and American savages cannot conceivably have derived the myth of fire-stealing from the root manth and its double sense of stealing and rubbing, there must be some other explanation. But this fact could not occur to comparative mythologists who did not compare, probably did not even know, similar myths wherever found.
Savage Myths of Fire-stealing
In La Mythologie (pp. 185-195) I have put together a small collection of savage myths of the theft of fire. {195b} Our text is the line of Hesiod (Theogony, 566), ‘Prometheus stole the far-seen ray of unwearied fire in a hollow stalk of fennel.’ The same stalk is still used in the Greek isles for carrying fire, as it was of old—whence no doubt this feature of the myth. {195c} How did Prometheus steal fire? Some say from the altar of Zeus, others that he lit his rod at the sun. {196a} The Australians have the same fable; fire was obtained by a black fellow who climbed by a rope to the sun. Again, in Australia fire was the possession of two women alone. A man induced them to turn their backs, and stole fire. A very curious version of the myth occurs in an excellent book by Mrs. Langloh Parker. {196b} There was no fire when Rootoolgar, the crane, married Gooner, the kangaroo rat. Rootoolgar, idly rubbing two sticks together, discovered the art of fire-making. ‘This we will keep secret,’ they said, ‘from all the tribes.’ A fire-stick they carried about in their comebee. The tribes of the Bush discovered the secret, and the fire-stick was stolen by Reeargar, the hawk. We shall be told, of course, that the hawk is the lightning, or the Dawn. But in this savage Jungle Book all the characters are animals, and Reeargar is no more the Dawn than is the kangaroo rat. In savage myths animals, not men, play the leading rôles, and the fire-stealing bird or beast is found among many widely scattered races. In Normandy the wren is the fire-bringer. {196c} A bird brings fire in the Andaman Isles. {196d} Among the Ahts a fish owned fire; other beasts stole it. The raven hero of the Thlinkeets, Yehl, stole fire. Among the Cahrocs two old women possessed it, and it was stolen by the coyote. Are these theftuous birds and beasts to be explained as Fire-gods? Probably not. Will any philologist aver that in Cahroc, Thlinkeet. Australian, Andaman, and so forth, the word for ‘rub’ resembled the word for ‘rob,’ and so produced by ‘a disease of language’ the myth of the Fire-stealer?
Origin of the Myth of Fire-stealing
The myth arose from the nature of savage ideas, not from unconscious puns. Even in a race so civilised as the Homeric Greeks, to make fire was no easy task. Homer speaks of a man, in a lonely upland hut, who carefully keeps the embers alive, that he may not have to go far afield in search of the seed of fire. {197} Obviously he had no ready means of striking a light. Suppose, then, that an early savage loses his seed of fire. His nearest neighbours, far enough off, may be hostile. If he wants fire, as they will not give it, he must steal it, just as he must steal a wife. People in this condition would readily believe, like the Australian blacks, that the original discoverers or possessors of a secret so valuable as fire would not give it away, that others who wanted it would be obliged to get it by theft. In Greece, in a civilised race, this very natural old idea survives, though fire is not the possession of a crane, or of an old woman, but of the gods, and is stolen, not by a hawk or a coyote, but by Prometheus, the culture-hero and demiurge. Whether his name ‘Foresighted’ is a mistaken folk-etymology from the root manth, or not, we have, in the ancient inevitable idea, that the original patentees of fire would not willingly part with their treasure, the obvious origin of the myth of the Fire-stealer. And this theory does not leave the analogous savage myths of fire-stealing unexplained and out in the cold, as does the philological hypothesis. {198} In this last instance, as in others, the origin of a world-wide myth is found, not in a ‘disease of language,’ but in a form of thought still natural. If a foreign power wants what answers among us to the exclusive possession of fire, or wants the secret of its rival’s new explosive, it has to steal it.
CONCLUSION
Here ends this ‘Gentle and Joyous Passage of Arms.’ I showed, first, why anthropological students of mythology, finding the philological school occupying the ground, were obliged in England to challenge Mr. Max Müller. I then discoursed of some inconveniences attending his method in controversy. Next, I gave a practical example, the affair of Tuna and Daphne. This led to a comparison of the philological and the anthropological ways of treating the Daphne myth. The question of our allies then coming up, I stated my reasons for regarding Prof. Tiele ‘rather as an ally than an adversary,’ the reason being his own statement. Presently, I replied to Prof. Tiele’s criticism of my treatment of the myth of Cronos. After a skirmish on Italian fields, I gave my reasons for disagreeing with Mr. Max Müller’s view of Mannhardt’s position. His theory of Demeter Erinnys was contrasted with that of Mr. Max Müller. Totemism occupied us next, and the views of Mr. Max Müller and Mr. J. G. Frazer were criticised. Then I defended anthropological and criticised philological evidence. Our method of universal comparison was next justified in the matter of Fetishism. The Riddle Theory of Mr. Max Müller was presently discussed. Then followed a review of our contending methods in the explanation of Artemis, of the Fire-walk, of Death Myths, and of the Fire-stealer. Thus a number of points in mythological interpretation have been tested on typical examples.
Much more might be said on a book of nearly 900 pages. Many points might be taken, much praise (were mine worth anything) might be given; but I have had but one object, to defend the method of anthropology from a running or dropping fire of criticism which breaks out in many points all along the line, through Contributions to the Science of Mythology. If my answer be desultory and wandering, remember the sporadic sharpshooting of the adversary! For adversary we must consider Mr. Max Müller, so long as we use different theories to different results. If I am right, if he is wrong, in our attempts to untie this old Gordian knot, he loses little indeed. That fame of his, the most steady and brilliant light of all which crown the brows of contemporary scholars, is the well-earned reward, not of mythological lore nor of cunning fence in controversy, but of wide learning and exquisitely luminous style.
I trust that I have imputed no unfairness, made no charge of conscious misrepresentation (to accidents of exposition we are all liable), have struck no foul blow, hazarded no discourteous phrase. If I have done so, I am thereby, even more than in my smattering of unscholarly learning, an opponent more absolutely unworthy of the Right Hon. Professor than I would fain believe myself.
APPENDIX A: The Fire-walk in Spain
One study occasionally illustrates another. In examining the history of the Earl Marischal, who was exiled after the rising of 1715, I found, in a letter of a correspondent of d’Alembert, that the Earl met a form of the fire-walk in Spain. There then existed in the Peninsula a hereditary class of men who, by dint of ‘charms’ permitted by the Inquisition, could enter fire unharmed. The Earl Marischal said that he would believe in their powers if he were allowed first to light the fire, and then to look on. But the fire-walkers would not gratify him, as not knowing what kind of fire a heretic might kindle.
APPENDIX B: Mr. Macdonell on Vedic Mythology
Too late for use here came Vedic Mythology, from Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie, {201} by Mr. A. Macdonell, the representative of the historic house of Lochgarry. This even a non-scholar can perceive to be a most careful and learned work. As to philological ‘equations’ between names of Greek and Vedic gods, Mr. Macdonell writes: ‘Dyaus=Ζευς is the only one which can be said to be beyond the range of doubt.’ As to the connection of Prometheus with Sanskrit Pramantha, he says: ‘Προμηθευς has every appearance of being a purely Greek formation, while the Indian verb math, to twirl, is found compounded only with nis, never with pra, to express the art of producing fire by friction.’ (See above, p. 194.) If Mr. Macdonell is right here, the Greek myth of the fire-stealer cannot have arisen from ‘a disease of language.’ But scholars must be left to reconcile this last typical example of their ceaseless differences in the matter of etymology of names.
FOOTNOTES
{0a} Chips, iv. 62.
{0b} Chips, iv. p. xxxv.
{0c} Chips, iv. pp. vi. vii.
{0d} Ibid. iv. p. xv.
{0e} Cults of the Greek States, ii. 435-440.
{0f} Chips, iv. p. xiv.
{0g} Chips, iv. p. xiii.
{5} Suidas, s.v. τελμισσεις; he cites Dionysius of Chalcis, B.C. 200.
{6a} See Goguet, and Millar of Glasgow, and Voltaire.
{6b} Translated by M. Parmentier.
{7} See ‘Totemism,’ infra.
{8} Longmans.
{10a} M. R. R. i. 155-160.
{10b} Tylor’s Prim. Cult. i. 145.
{10c} Turner’s Samoa, p. 219.
{10d} Gill’s Myths and Songs, p. 79.
{11} M. R. R. ii. 160.
{14} Metam. i. 567.
{15a} Grimm, cited by Liebrecht in Zur Volkskunde, p. 17.
{15b} Primitive Culture, i. 285.
{15c} Op. cit. i. 46-81.
{16} M. R. R. i. 160.
{17} Erratum: This is erroneous. See Contributions, &c., vol. i. p. 6, where Mr. Max Müller writes, ‘Tuna means eel.’ This shows why Tuna, i.e. Eel, is the hero. His connection, as an admirer, with the Moon, perhaps remains obscure.
{18} Phonetically there may be ‘no possible objection to the derivation of Απολλων from a Sanskrit form, *Apa-var-yan, or *Apa-val-yan’ (ii. 692); but, historically, Greek is not derived from Sanskrit surely!
{20a} Mythologische Forschungen, p. 275.
{20b} Baumkultus, p. 297. Berlin: 1875.
{21a} Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 257. Referring to Baumkultus, p. 297.
{21b} Oriental and Linguistic Studies, second series, p. 160. La Religion Védique, iii. 293.
{22} 1, viii. cf. i. 27.
{23} Riv. Crit. Mensile. Geneva, iii. xiv. p. 2.
{25a} Custom and Myth, p. 3, citing Revue de l’Hist. des Religions, ii. 136.
{25b} M. R. R. i. 24.
{25c} Revue de l’Hist. des Religions, xii. 256.
{26} Op. cit. p. 253.
{27} Op. cit. xii. 250.
{28a} P. 104, infra.
{28b} Revue de l’Hist. des Religions, xii. 259.
{29a} M. R. R. i. 25.
{29b} Rev. xii. 247.
{30} M. R. R. i. 24.
{31a} Rev. xii. 277.
{31b} Rev. xii. 264.
{31c} M. R. R. i. 44, 45.
{32a} Custom and Myth, p. 51.
{32b} Rev. xii. 262.
{34} Odyssey, book ix.
{37} C. and M. p. 56.
{42a} W. u. F. K. xxiii.
{42b} M. R. R. i. 23.
{42c} W. u. F. K. xvii.
{46} Golden Bough, 1. ix.
{48} περιελθειν δρομω την κωμην. Dionys. i. 80.
{51a} Pausanias, viii. 25.
{51b} Myth. Forsch. p. 244.
{51c} Iliad, xx. 226.
{52} Myth. Forsch, p. 265
{54} September 19, 1875. Myth. Forsch. xiv.
{55} For undeniable solar myths see M. R. R. i. 124-135.
{56} Op. cit. p. xx.
{60} Folk Lore Society.
{61a} Von einem der vorzüglichsten Schiriftgelehrten, Annana, in klassischer Darstellung aufgezeichneten Märchens, p. 240.
{61b} Custom and Myth.
{62a} See Preface to Mrs. Hunt’s translation of Grimm’s Märchen.
{62b} P. 309.
{65} x. 17. Cf. Muir, Sanskrit Texts, v. 277.
{66} As the Sun’s wife is Dawn, and leaves him at dawn, she is not much of a bedfellow. As Night, however, she is a bedfellow of the nocturnal Sun.
{71} M. R. R. i. 58-81.
{72a} See Robertson Smith on ‘Semitic Religion.’
{72b} See Sayce’s Herodotus, p. 344.
{72c} See Rhys’ Rhind Lectures; I am not convinced by the evidence.
{73} Academy, September 27, 1884.
{74a} Anth. Rel. p. 405.
{74b} Plantagenet, Planta genista.—A. L.
{74c} See M. R. R. ii. 56, for a criticism of this theory.
{76} Religion of the Semites, pp. 208, 209.
{78} Die Religionen, p. 12.
{79} Anth. Rel. p. 122.
{80} Dalton.
{81a} Strabo, xiii. 613. Pausanias, i. 24, 8.
{81b} Crooke, Introduction to Popular Religion of North India, p. 380.
{82a} C. and M. p. 115.
{82b} Contributions, ii. 687.
{83a} Evidence in G. B. i. 325, 326.
{83b} Compare Liebrecht, ‘The Eaten God,’ in Zur Volkskunde, p. 436.
{84a} Cf. G. B. ii. 17, for evidence.
{84b} M. R. R. ii. 232.
{84c} G. B. ii. 90-113.
{84d} In Encyclop. Brit. he thinks it ‘very probable.’
{85a} i. 200.
{85b} M. R. R. ii. 142, 148-149.
{85c} R. V. iv. 18, 10.
{86} G. B. ii. 44-49.
{87} G. B. ii. 33.
{88a} Plutarch, Quæst. Rom. vi. McLennan, The Patriarchal Theory, p. 207, note 2.
{88b} G. B. ii. 337.
{89a} See G. B. ii. 332-334.
{89b} Religion of the Semites, p. 118.
{90} G. B. ii. 337, 338.
{93a} Custom and Myth, p. 235.
{93b} M. R. R. ii. 327.
{93c} Op. cit. ii. 329.
{94} Lectures on Science of Language, Second Series, p. 41.
{95} M. R. R. ii. 336.
{96} Anthropological Religion.
{97a} M. R. R. i. 171-173.
{97b} Ibid. i. 172.
{97c} Anth. Rel. p. 180.
{100} ‘Totemism,’ Encyclop. Brit.
{101a} M. R. R. ii. 333.
{101b} Ibid. ii. 335.
{103} M. R.. R.. i. 96, 127; ii. 22, 336.
{106a} Greek Etym. Engl. transl. i. 147.
{106b} Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte, p. 431.
{109} Gr. Etym. i. 150.
{110} M. R. R. ii. 142.
{111a} ii. 210. Cf. Oldenberg in Deutsche Rundschau, 1895, p. 205.
{111b} R. V. iv. 18, 10.
{114} Aglaophamus, i. 700.
{115} Custom and Myth, i. 29-44. M. R. R. ii. 260-273.
{116} Custom and Myth, pp. 212-242.
{117a} Culte des Fétiches, 1760.
{117b} Codrington, Journal Anthrop. Inst., Feb. 1881.
{118a} C. and M. p. 230, note.
{118b} Rochas, Les Forces non définies, 1888, pp. 340-357, 411, 626.
{118c} Revue Bleue, 1890, p. 367.
{118d} De Brosses, p. 16.
{120a} C. and M. p. 214.
{120b} M. R. R. i. 327.
{120c} Lectures on the Science of Language, 2nd series, p. 41.
{121} M. R. R. ii. 327 and 329.
{124} M. R. R. ii. 324.
{125a} Paris: Œuvres, 1758, iii. 270.
{125b} M. R. R. ii. 324.
{126} I have no concern with his criticism of Mr. Herbert Spencer (p. 203), as I entirely disagree with that philosopher’s theory. The defence of ‘Animism’ I leave to Dr. Tylor.
{135} Meyer, 1846, apud Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 432.
{138} My italics.
{139a} M. R. R. ii. 208-221.
{139b} Ibid. ii. 209.
{140} M. R. R. ii. 218.
{141a} De Dianæ Antiquissima apud Græcos Natura, p. 76. Vratislaw, 1881.
{141b} De Diane Brauron, p. 33. Compare, for all the learning, Mr. Farnell, in Cults of the Greek States.
{142a} M. R. R. i. x.
{142b} Life in California, pp. 241, 303.
{142c} Religion of the Semites, p. 274.
{142d} See also Mr. Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 90-94; and Robertson Smith, op. cit. pp. 416-418.
{142e} Apostolius, viii. 19; vii. 10.
{143a} Melanesians, p. 32.
{143b} Samoa, p. 17.
{143c} M. R. R. ii. 33.
{143d} See also Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 92.
{143e} M. R. R. ii. 208.
{144a} M. R. R. ii. 209.
{144b} Custom and Myth, ‘Star Myths.’
{148a} L. Preller, Röm. Myth. p. 239, gives etymologies.
{148b} Æn. xi. 785.
{149a} A. W. F. p. 328.
{149b} Dionys. Halic. iii. 32.
{149c} Hist. Nat. vii. 2.
{149d} Æn. xi. 784.
{149e} Æn. xi. 787.
{150a} Serv. Æn. vii. 800.
{150b} Authorities in A. F. W. K. p. 325.
{151a} Herabkunft, p. 30.
{151b} Pausanias, viii. 385.
{151c} A. W. F. K. xxii. xxiii.
{153} Janus, pp. 44-49.
{161} Home, the medium, was, or affected to be, entranced in his fire tricks, as was Bernadette, at Lourdes, in the Miracle du Cierge.
{163} The photograph referred to is evidently taken from a sketch by hand, and is not therefore a photograph from life.—EDITOR. The original photograph was hereon sent to the editor and acknowledged by him.—A. L.
{169} Procès, Quicherat, ii. 396, 397
{171} Introduction to Popular Religion and Folk-Lore in Northern India, by W. Crookes, B.A., p. 10.
{172} Iamblichus, De Myst. iii. 4.
{173} Folk-Lore, September 1895.
{174} Quoted by Dr. Boissarie in his book, Lourdes, p. 49, from a book by Dr. Dozous, now rare. Thanks to information from Dr. Boissarie, I have procured the book by Dr. Dozous, an eye-witness of the miracle, and have verified the quotation.
{175} Predvestniki spiritizma za posleanie 250 lyet. A. M. Aksakoff, St. Petersburg, 1895. See Mr. Leaf’s review, Proceedings S. P. R. xii. 329.
{178} Prim. Cult. i. 138.
{179} Journal of Anthrop. Institute, x. iii.
{180a} Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, p. 42.
{180b} Relations, 1637, p. 49.
{183a} Abor. of Victoria, i. 429.
{183b} Dalton, op. cit.
{184} Codrington, Journal Anthrop. Institute, x. iii. For America, compare Relations de la Nouvelle France, 1674, p. 13.
{185} The connection between the Moon and the Hare is also found in Sanskrit, in Mexican, in some of the South Sea Islands, and in German and Buddhist folklore. Probably what we call ‘the Man in the Moon’ seemed very like a hare to various races, roused their curiosity, and provoked explanations in the shape of myths.
{186} Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, p. 150.
{187} Codrington, op. cit, p. 304.
{188} Codrington, op. cit.
{190a} Bastian, Heilige Sage.
{190b} Primitive Culture, i. 336.
{194} Kuhn, Die Herabkunft der Feuers und der Göttertranks. Berlin, 1859.
{195a} Herabkunft, pp. 16, 24.
{195b} Dupret, Paris, 1886. Translation by M. Parmentier.
{195c} Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiii. 22. Bent. Cyclades.
{196a} Servius ad Virg., Eclogue vi. 42.
{196b} Australian Legendary Tales. Nutt: London, 1897. Mrs. Parker knows Australian dialects, and gives one story in the original. Her tribes live on the Narran River, in New South Wales.
{196c} Bosquet, La Normandie Merveilleuse. Paris, 1845.
{196d} Journal Anthrop. Institute, November, 1884.
{197} Odyssey, v. 488-493.
{198} References for savage myths of the Fire-stealer will be found—for the Ahts, in Sproat; for the tribes of the Pacific coast, in Bancroft; for Australians in Brough Smyth’s Aborigines of Victoria.
{201} Trübner, Strasburg, 1897.