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Title: New Theories in Astronomy

Author: William Stirling

Release date: April 10, 2014 [eBook #45356]
Most recently updated: October 24, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW THEORIES IN ASTRONOMY ***

NEW THEORIES IN
ASTRONOMY

WILLIAM STIRLING

CIVIL ENGINEER

London:

E. & F. N. SPON, Limited, 57 HAYMARKET

New York:

SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET

1906

TO THE READER.

Mr. William Stirling, Civil Engineer, who devoted the last years of his life to writing this work, was born in Kilmarnock, Scotland, his father being the Rev. Robert Stirling, D.D., of that city, and his brothers, the late Mr. Patrick Stirling and Mr. James Stirling, the well known engineers and designers of Locomotive Engines for the Great Northern and South Eastern Railways respectively.

After completing his studies in Scotland he settled in South America, and was engaged as manager and constructing engineer in important railway enterprises on the west coast, besides other concerns both in Peru and Chile; his last work being the designing and construction of the railway from the port of Tocopilla on the Pacific Ocean to the Nitrate Fields of Toco in the interior, the property of the Anglo-Chilian and Nitrate Railway Company.

He died in Lima, Peru, on the 7th October, 1900, much esteemed and respected, leaving the MS. of the present work behind him, which is now published as a tribute to his memory, and wish to put before those who are interested in the Science of Astronomy his theories to which he devoted so much thought.

	PAGE
INTRODUCTION	1
CHAPTER I.
The bases of modern astronomy. Their late formation	18
Instruments and measures used by ancient astronomers	19
Weights and measures sought out by modern astronomers	20
Means employed to discover the density of the earth.
Measuring by means of plummets not sufficiently exact	20
Measurements with torsion and chemical balances more accurate	21
Sir George B. Airy's theory, and experiments at the Harton colliery	22
Results of experiments not reliable. Theory contrary to the Law of Attraction	23
Proof by arithmetical calculation of its error	24
Difficulties in comparing beats of pendulums at top and bottom of a mine	26
The theory upheld by text-books without proper examination	27
Of a particle of matter within the shell of a hollow sphere.
Not exempt from the law of Attraction	28
A particle so situated confronted with the law of the
inverse square ofdistance from an attracting body. Remarks thereon	29
It is not true that the attraction of a spherical shell
is "zero" for a particle of matter within it	31
CHAPTER II.
The moon cannot have even an imaginary rotation on its axis,
but is generally believed to have. Quotations to prove this	33
Proofs that there can be no rotation. The most confused
assertion that there is rotation shown to be without foundations	35
A gin horse does not rotate on its axis in its revolution	37
A gin horse, or a substitute, driven instead of being a driver	38
Results of the wooden horse being driven by the mill	38
The same results produced by the revolution of the moon.
Centrifugal force sufficient to drive air and water away from our side of the moon	39
That force not sufficient to drive them away from its other side	40
No one seems ever to have thought of centrifugal force in connection with air and water on the moon	41
Near approach made by Hansen to this notion	41
Far-fetched reasons given for the non-appearance of air and water	42
The moon must have both on the far-off hemisphere	44
Proofs of this deduced from its appearance at change	44
Where the evidences of this may be seen if looked for at the right place.
The centrifugal force shown to be insufficient to drive off even air,
and less water, altogether from the moon	45
The moon must have rotated on its axis at one period of its existence	47
The want of polar compression no proof to the contrary	48
Want of proper study gives rise to extravagant conceptions,
jumping at conclusions, and formation of "curious theories"	48
CHAPTER III.
Remarks on some of the principal cosmogonies. Ancient notions	49
The Nebular hypothesis of Laplace. Early opinions on it.
Received into favour. Again condemned as erroneous	50
Defects attributed to it as fatal. New cosmogonies advanced	51
Dr. Croll's collision, or impact, theory discussed	53
Dr. Braun's cosmogony examined	59
M. Faye's "Origine du Monde" defined	61
Shown to be without proper foundation, confused, and in some parts contradictory	65
Reference to other hypotheses not noticed. All more or less
only variations on the nebular hypothesis	70
Necessity for more particular examination into it	71
CHAPTER IV.
Preliminaries to analysis of the Nebular hypothesis	72
Definition of the hypothesis	73
Elements of solar system. Tables of dimensions and masses	75
Explanation of tables and density of Saturn	78
Volume, density and mass of Saturn's rings, general remarks
about them, and satellites to be made from them	79
Future of Saturn's rings	79
Notions about Saturn's satellites and their masses	80
Nature of rings seemingly not well understood	81
Masses given to the satellites of Uranus and Neptune. Explanations of	81
Volumes of the members of the solar system at density of water	82
CHAPTER V.
Analysis of the Nebular Hypothesis. Separation from the nebula
of the rings for the separate planets, etc.	83
Excessive heat attributed to the nebula erroneous and impossible	84
Centigrade thermometer to be used for temperatures	85
Temperature of the nebula not far from absolute zero	86
Erroneous ideas about glowing gases produced by collisions of their atoms,
or particles of cosmic matter in the form of vapours	86
Separation of ring for Neptune. It could not have been
thrown off in one mass, but in a sheet of cosmic matter	87
Thickness and dimensions of the ring	88
Uranian ring abandoned, and its dimensions	89
Saturnian ring abandoned, and its dimensions	90
Jovian ring abandoned, and its dimensions	91
Asteroidal ring abandoned, and its dimensions	93
Martian ring abandoned, and its dimensions	94
Earth ring abandoned, and its dimensions	95
Venus ring abandoned, and its dimensions	96
Mercurian ring abandoned, and its dimensions	97
Residual mass. Condensation of Solar Nebula to various
diameters, and relative temperatures and densities	98
Unaccountable confusion in the mode of counting absolute temperature examined and explained.
Negative 274 degrees of heat only equal 2 degrees of absolute temperature	100
The Centigrade thermometric scale no better than any other, and cannot be made decimal	103
The sun's account current with the Nebula drawn up and represented by Table III.	104
CHAPTER VI.
Analysis continued. Excessive heat of nebula involved condensation only at
the surface. Proof that this was Laplace's idea	108
Noteworthy that some astronomers still believe in excessive heat	109
Interdependence of temperature and pressure in gases and vapours.
Collisions of atoms the source of heat	110
Conditions on which a nebula can be incandescent. Sir Robert Ball	110
No proper explanation yet given of incandescent or glowing gas	112
How matter was thrown off, or abandoned by the Jovian nebula	115
Division into rings of matter thrown off determined during contraction	116
How direct rotary motion was determined by friction and collisions of particles	117
Saturn's rings going through the same process. Left to show process	118
Form gradually assumed by nebulæ. Cause of Saturn's square-shouldered appearance	120
A lens-shaped nebula could not be formed by surface condensation	120
Retrograde rotary motion of Neptune and Uranus, and revolution of their satellites
recognised by Laplace as possible	121
Satellites of Mars. Rapid revolution of inner one may be accounted for	123
Laplace's proportion of 4000 millions not reduced but enormously
increased by discoveries of this century	124
CHAPTER VII.
Analysis continued. No contingent of heat could be imparted to any planet by the parent nebula	126
Only one degree of heat added to the nebula from the beginning till it had
contracted to the density of 1/274th of an atmosphere	127
Increase in temperature from 0° to possible average of 274°
when condensed to 4,150,000 miles in diameter	127
Time when the sun could begin to act as sustainer of life and light anywhere.
Temperature of space	128
The ether devised as carrier of light, heat, etc. What effect it might have on the nebula	129
First measure of its density, as far as we know	130
The estimate too high. May be many times less	133
Return to the solar nebula at 63,232,000 miles in diameter	134
Plausible reason for the position of Neptune not conforming to Bode's Law.
The ring being very wide had separated into two rings	134
Bode's law reversed. Ideas suggested by it	135
Rates of acceleration of revolution from one planet to another	137
Little possibility of there being a planet in the position assigned to Vulcan	138
Densities of planets compared. Seem to point to differences
in the mass of matter abandoned by the nebula at different periods	138
Giving rise to the continuous sheet of matter separating into different masses.
Probably the rings had to arrive at a certain stage of density before contracting circumferentially	139
Possible average temperature of the sun at the present day.
Central heat probably very much greater	140
Churning of matter going on in the interior of the sun, caused by unequal
rotation between the equator and the poles	140
CHAPTER VIII.
Inquiry into the Interior Construction of the Earth.
What is really known of the exterior or surface	142
What is known of the interior	143
Little to be learned from Geology, which reaches very few miles down	144
Various notions of the interior	145
What is learnt from earthquake and volcanoes. Igno-aqueous fusion, liquid magma.	146
Generally believed that the earth consists of solid matter to the centre.
Mean density. Surface density	147
More detailed estimate of densities near the surface	148
Causes of increased surface density after the crust was formed	148
Calculations of densities for 9 miles deep, and from there to the centre forming Table IV.	150
Reflections on the results of the calculations	151
Notion that the centre is composed of the heaviest metals.
"Sorting-out" theory absurd	151
Considerations as to how solid matter got to the centre	152
Gravitation might carry it there, but attraction could not	153
How the earth could be made out of cosmic matter, meteorites or meteors	154
CHAPTER IX.
Inquiry into the Interior Construction of the Earth—continued	165
The earth gasiform at one period. Density including the moon may have been 1/10,000th
that of air. Must have been a hollow body. Proofs given	166
Division of the mass of the earth alone into two parts	169
Division of the two masses at 817 miles from surface	171
Reasons why the earth cannot be solid to the centre	172
Gasiform matter condensing in a cone leaves apex empty	172
Proportions of the matter in a cone	173
Calculations of the densities of the outer half of the hollow
shell of the earth. Remarks upon the condensation	174
Calculations of inner half of the hollow shell	175
Remarks upon position of inner surface of the shell	177
Calculations of the same	179
CHAPTER X.
Inquiry into the interior construction of the Earth—continued	184
Density of 8·8 times that of water still too high for the
possible compression of the component matter of the earth as known to us	185
Reasons for this conclusion drawn from crushing strains of materials	186
A limit to density shown thereby	187
The greatest density need not exceed 6·24 of water	188
Gases shut up in the hollow centre. Their weight must so
far diminish the conceded maximum of 6·24	189
Density of inner half of earth at 3000 miles diameter.
Greatest density may be less than 5·833 of water	190
Supposed pressure of inclosed gases very moderate	191
Meaning of heat limit to density. Temperature of interior
half of shell and inclosed gases must be equal	193
State of the hollow interior	194
Results of the whole inquiry	195
CHAPTER XI.
The Earth. The idea entertained by some celebrated men, and others	197
Difficulties of forming a sphere out of a lens-shaped nebula	199
Various studies of the earth's interior made for specialy purposes. Difficulty some
people find in conceiving how the average density of little over 5·66 can be
possible, the earth being a hollow sphere	200
What is gained by its being a hollow shell	201
Geological theories of the interior discussed.
Volcanoes and earthquakes in relation to the interior	202
Liquid matter on the interior surface of the shell, and gases in the hollow,
better means for eruptions than magma layers	206
Focal depths of earthquakes within reach of water, but not of lavas	207
Minute vesicles in granite filled with gases, oxygen and hydrogen, but not water	209
The Moon. A small edition of the earth	211
Rotation stopped. Convulsions and cataclysms caused thereby. Air, water,
vapour driven off thereby to far-off hemisphere. Liquid matter in hollow
interior would gravitate to the inside of the nearest hemisphere	212
Form and dimensions during rotation. Altered form after it stopped	213
Agreeing very closely with Hansen's "curious theory"	214
CHAPTER XII.
Some of the results arising from the sun's being a hollow sphere	215
Repetition of the effects of condensation on the temperature of the nebula	216
Ideas called up by the apparently anomalous increase of temperature	217
How heat is carried from the sun to the earth	218
The sun supposed to radiate heat only to bodies that can receive and hold it,
and not to all space. The heat of the sun accumulated in a
hot box to considerably beyond the boiling point of water	219
The heat accumulated in this way supposed to be due to a peculiar function of the ether,
as it is a fact that heat can be radiated from a cold to a hot body	220
The sun must be gaseous, or rather gasiform, throughout. No matter in it solid
or even liquid. Divisions and densities of shell	221
The hollow centre filled with gases, whose mass naturally
diminishes the mean density of the whole body	222
The amount of this reduction so far defined. The presence of gases or vapours
in the hollow a natural result of condensation	223
The hollow centre filled with gases not incompatible with the sun's being
a hollow sphere. The temperature at the centre may be anything,
not depending on any law of gases	223
Further exposition of hollow-sphere theory put off till after
further development of the construction of the sun	224
CHAPTER XIII.
The ether. Its nature considered. Behaves like a gas	226
Can be pumped out of a receive	227
Light and heat do not pass through a tube in vacuo.
Laboratory experiments examined	228
Light and darkness in a partial vacuum, though high	229
Electricity not a carrying agent	230
Why there are light and dark strata in a high vacuum	232
The real carrying agent through a high vacuum is the residue
of ether left in it. Digression to consider the aurora	233
How air may be carried to extraordinary heights. Zones of
air carried up are made luminous by electricity	234
Comparison of this method with experiments quoted	236
Experiment suggested to prove whether light passes freely through a vacuum tube	237
The ether does not pervade all bodies freely	238
It must be renounced altogether or acknowledged to be a material body,
subject to expansion, condensation, heating or cooling	239
How light and heat pass through glass	239
Temperature of the ether variable. Zodiacal light, cause of	240
CHAPTER XIV.
The ether considered and its nature explained. Further proofs
given by Dr. Crookes's work, of its material substance	244
Highest vacuum yet produced. Absorbents cannot absorb the ether	246
Dr. Crookes's definition of a gas. Not satisfactory. Why	247
A fluid required to pump matter out of a vessel	248
Gas as described by Dr. Crookes would not suit	249
The ether the only elastic fluid we have. The only real gas,if it is a gas	250
A possible measure of the density of the ether	250
Causes of dark and light zones in high vacua	251
The real conductor of light in a high vacuum	252
How a vacuum tube glows, when electricity passes through it	254
Conclusions arrived at through foregoing discussions	255
Some exhibitions of light explained	256
Gases can be put in motion, but cannot move even themselves	257
The ether shown to be attraction. And primitive matter also	258
All chemical elements evolved from it. Its nature stated	259
Action at a distance explained by the ether and attraction
being one and the same	259
CHAPTER XV.
Construction of the solar system. Matter out of which it was formed	261
Domains of the sun out of which the matter was collected	262
Stars nearest to the sun. Table VII. showing distances	263
Remarks on Binary Stars. Table VIII. showing spheres of
attraction between the sun and a very few	265
Sirius actually our nearest neighbour. Form of the sun's domains of a very jagged nature	266
Creation of matter for the nebulæ, out of which the whole universe was
elaborated. Beginning of construction	267
The law of attraction begins to operate through the agency of evolution	267
Form of the primitive solar nebula. The jagged peaks
probably soon left behind in contraction	268
How the nebula contracted. Two views of the form it might take.
Comparison of the two forms, solid or hollow	269
The hollow centre form adopted. The jagged peaks left behind	272
The nebula assuming a spherical form. Shreds, masses,
crescents separated from one side	273
Probable form of interior of nebula. Compared with envelopes in heads of some comets	274
Reflections on the nebula being hollow. Opinions of others quoted	275
The matter of a sphere solid to the centre must be inert there	276
Further proofs of the nebula being hollow	277
How rotary motion was instituted	278
Such a nebula might take one of two forms	279
The form depending on the class of nebula. Planetary in the case of the solar system.
A similar conception of how rotary motion could be instituted	280
CHAPTER XVI.
The sun's neighbours still exercise their attraction over him	282
Regions of greatest density in the 9 nebulæ dealt with; compared with the
orbits of the planets made from them	283
Results of comparison favourable to the theory	287
Differences of size in the planets have arisen from variations in the quantity
of matter accumulating on the nebulæ	289
Causes of the retrograde motions in Neptune, Uranus, and their satellites	290
Probable causes of the anomalous position of Neptune	292
Rises and falls in the densities and dimensions of the planets explained	293
The form of the nebulæ must have resembled a dumb-bell	295
More about rises and falls in densities	296
Reason why the Asteroid nebula was the least dense of the system;	297
Not necessary to revise the dimensions given to the 9 nebulæ	298
Causes of the anomalies in the dimensions, densities, etc., of the Earth and Venus	299
The strictly spherical form of the sun accounted for. But it may yet be varied	299
Repetition that a spherical body could not be made from a lens-shaped
nebula by attraction and condensation	300
CHAPTER XVII.
Former compromises taken up and begun to be fulfilled	301
Estimates of the heat-power of the sun made only from gravitation hitherto	302
Contraction and condensation of a nebula solid to the centre.
Heat produced from attraction as well as by gravitation	303
What quantity of heat is produced by a stone falling upon the earth	304
Showing again that there is a difference between attraction and gravitation	305
Contraction and condensation of a hollow-sphere nebula, in the same manner as the solid one	305
Differences of rotation would be greater in a hollow nebula; because a great deal of
the matter would be almost motionless in a solid sphere;	306
In neither case could matter be brought to rest, but only retarded in motion.
Different periods of rotation accounted for	307
Table of different rates explained	309
Heat produced by gravitation, attraction and churning, not all
constituents of the heat-power of the sun	310
There can be no matter in the sun so dense as water	311
The hollow part of the sun acting as a reservoir of
gases, heat and pressure	312
The behaviour of heat produced in the nebula, and its power	313
How sun-spots are produced	314
Cyclonic motions observed in sun-spots. Why not all in
certain directions, and why only observed in a very few	315
Cyclonic motions in prominences treated of	316
Many other things might be explained, on some of which we
do not dare to venture. Concluding observations	317
CHAPTER XVIII.
Return to the peaks abandoned by the original nebula. An idea of their number	319
Example of their dimensions. What was made out of them	320
What could be made from one of them	321
How it could be divided into comets and meteor swarms	322
An example given. How a comet may rotate on its axis. And what might be
explained thereby. Orbits and periods of revolution	323
Not ejected from planets. Their true origin	324
Study of the velocities in orbit of comets, and results thereof	326
How far comets may wander from the sun and return again	327
No reason why comets should wander from one sun to another. Confirmatory
of the description, in Chapter XV. of the sun's domains	328
Of the eternal evolution and involution of matter.
The atmosphere and corona of the sun	329
Partial analogy between it and the earth's atmosphere	331
The density of it near the sun's surface cannot be normally less than 28 atmospheres,
but might be so partially and accidentally	332
Probable causes of the enormous height of its atmosphere	332
The mass taken into account, but cannot be valued	334
Most probably no matter in the sun exceeds half the density of water.
The unknown line in the spectrum of the corona belongs to the ether	335

New Theories in Astronomy

About This Book

The Project Gutenberg eBook of New Theories in Astronomy

NEW THEORIES IN
ASTRONOMY

TO THE READER.

CONTENTS