Organization: How Armies are Formed for War

The most recent developments of Organization are well illustrated in that of the British Army, which has been lately reorganized in accordance with the trend of modern views as to the conduct of War.

Ruskin once wrote that no modern man could ever realize the amount of thought built into a Gothic cathedral, where the size and detail of each part have been designed with reference to the proportion it bears to the whole, as well as to the number and dimensions of its fellow members. It would be equally impossible to sum up in a short chapter the thought built into the organization of the British Army. To appreciate its details demands a thorough knowledge of the working of each Arm and of each Administrative Service. Each is planned to be of such strength and composition as to enable it to perform all that is required of it, and to ensure that all shall work in harmonious co-operation under the strain and friction of War.

Among the points which are especially worth noticing are the following, which bear out the principles of Organization dwelt on in previous chapters.

Organization by Divisions

It was shown in Chapter V. that small armies should be formed of Divisions and not of Army Corps. This principle has been adopted.

The strength of the British Expeditionary Force is practically that of three Cavalry Divisions and three Army Corps of the German Army. The former comprises 75 Battalions, the equivalent of nearly 23 Regiments of Mounted Troops, and 492 guns; the latter, 75 Battalions, 24 Cavalry Regiments, and 468 guns. But the British Force is organized so as to be more flexible, and to facilitate and strengthen the Supreme Command. It is more flexible from the greater number of Subordinate Commands. It facilitates Command by having two links fewer in the chain of Command—the Army Corps and the Regiment. It strengthens Command by not having any Subordinate Commander of the importance of the German Army Corps Commander to reckon with—a point emphasized by Clausewitz.

Facility of Subdivision

The British organization is so planned that the Force can be readily divided, when required, into two Armies, each of which can be provided with its proportion of Strategic and Protective Cavalry, and of Army Troops, without disorganizing and rearranging those Formations.

This principle has been carried throughout the Force. Thus, the Cavalry Division can supply any detached Brigade with the Divisional Troops required—namely, a Battery of Horse Artillery, a Field Troop of Engineers, a Section of the Wireless Telegraph Company, a Field Ambulance, and a Company of A.S.C. to form the Brigade T. and S. Column, there being one of each of these Divisional Units for each Brigade to be detached.

Similarly, the Cavalry Brigade can detach one of its Regiments provided with Sections from the Field Troop of Engineers, the Field Ambulance, and the A.S.C. Company, so as to be self-contained.

In exactly the same manner, the Division of Infantry can at any time detach a Brigade provided with its due proportion of all Arms and Administrative Services, without confusion and delay.

The Infantry Brigade, also, can detach Battalions equally self-contained; and the Artillery Brigade can allot a Section of its Ammunition Column to any Battery which it may be desirable to detach.

Staff

The following principles have been adopted:

Separation of the General Staff from the Branches of the Staff charged with Routine and Administrative work, and making the latter Branches subordinate to the General Staff for their general direction, while independent in their working. This matter has been discussed in Chapter VI.

Reduction of the numbers attached to General Head-Quarters, by relegating most of the Directors of the Administrative Services to the L. of C. This is very desirable in the case of the Services which work on the L. of C., in order that the Directors may be in intimate touch with their work. As a rule, only the Directors of Army Signals, Supplies, Transport, and Medical Services will accompany General Head-Quarters at the front.

Cavalry Organization

The view has been accepted that the same body of Cavalry cannot perform the two often incompatible duties of obtaining Information, and providing Security for the Army. This subject has been fully discussed in Chapter II.

The Force is therefore provided with a large Cavalry Division to form the Independent Cavalry responsible for Strategic Reconnaissance, and a smaller body, the Mounted Brigades, for the duty of Protection.

The Independent Cavalry is no longer hampered by having to cover the front of the Army with a protective screen. Its strength of 4 Brigades, or 12 Regiments, with 4 Batteries of Horse Artillery, makes it equivalent to two Continental Cavalry Divisions, but, being permanently organized under one Command, it will have greater flexibility, and be more prompt and efficient in action, than the two separate Divisions. As to this, von Bernhardi says “one strong Division under a single Command is of far more use than two weak ones.” This endorses the British organization.

The allotment of Mounted Infantry to replace Divisional Cavalry, and to form the bulk of the protective Mounted Brigades, sets free nearly all our Cavalry Regiments for their true offensive function, for which they can be expressly trained. Our Cavalry Regiments run no risk of being broken up to provide Divisional Cavalry or Escorts to Head-Quarters on mobilization, as is unavoidable for many Continental Cavalry Regiments, in which case, not only is their real Cavalry training wasted, but their Head-Quarters are superfluous. Von Bernhardi recommends a Cyclist Battalion being attached to each Army Corps to eke out the Cavalry, a suggestion we have anticipated by the use of Mounted Infantry.

The organization of Cavalry Regiments and Brigades in three units tends to facilitate command and tactical action. Our Yeomanry and Cavalry in India have the 4-Squadron organization, and opinions differ as to the value of the 3-Squadron Regiment, but the 3-Regiment Brigade is undoubtedly a more flexible and efficient instrument for rapid and decided action than the weak foreign Brigade of 2 Regiments which von Bernhardi condemns.

The provision of Mounted Brigades, under the Army Commander, is an innovation. Their functions are in foreign armies carried out by the Divisional Cavalry; but the screen formed by such Squadrons, acting independently under their Divisional Commander, can hardly be as continuous and effective as that provided by the British Mounted Brigades acting directly under the orders of the Army Commander.

The fire action of the Mounted Troops has been developed, as mentioned in Chapter II. In this point the British Cavalry, armed with the Infantry rifle, is undoubtedly in advance of any other. The use also of Mounted Infantry, peculiar to the British Service, provides more efficient fire action for both Army and Divisional Protective Cavalry than in any other army. This will increase the power of the protective screen to drive in that of the enemy, and assist the Advanced Guards to push on, or at least to hold their ground till the main body can deploy and come into action.

Machine Guns

Two Machine Guns form an integral part of Battalions and Cavalry Regiments. This provides a greater number of these guns than in Continental armies at present (see page 34).

Field Artillery

The proportion of guns to Infantry has in all armies been steadily rising during late years. It is now higher in the British than even in the German organization, and far higher than in other armies.

The modern tendency to provide different natures for different purposes has been followed, in allotting a Howitzer Brigade and a Heavy Battery to each Division.

In action a number of assistants are allotted to each Artillery Commander, to enable him to use indirect fire with facility, and to combine the fire of all his guns to the greatest effect.

Ammunition Supply

The organization of the supply of ammunition in action has been systematized in detail. Ammunition Columns are organized so as to be divided readily to accompany detached Batteries, and to facilitate the supply of ammunition to Infantry, Cavalry, and Mounted Brigades.

Engineers

Modern war demands more and more the co-operation of Engineers with other Arms. This has been recognized in Japan, where a Battalion is attached to a Division. The British Division has now 2 Field Companies, or double the number in Continental armies. Each is provided with some Bridging Equipment for forming small bridges without waiting for the “Bridging Trains” to come up. There are two of these Bridging Trains, which form part of the Army Troops, and are ready to be sent to the front whenever it is foreseen that large bridges will be required on the forward march of any part of the Army. When there is no need of them, the Bridging Trains will march in rear, so as not to block the roads.

Organization of the Division

One of the most important improvements in the British organization is that a Division is formed of three Infantry Brigades, instead of the two nearly universal in foreign armies. This change has often been recommended by foreign military experts, notably by von der Golz in his “Nation in Arms.” It is economical in Divisional Staff, and increases the importance and efficiency of the Divisional Command. It provides 12 Battalions for a Division, as in Germany, but without the insertion of an extra link—the Regiment—in the chain of Command. The almost universal organization of Infantry in foreign armies in Army Corps of 2 Divisions, Divisions of 2 Brigades, and Brigades of 2 Regiments, must be considered, for reasons already stated, a faulty one. The British Divisional organization, both in Infantry and Cavalry, is undoubtedly superior.

Inter-communication

The personnel and equipment necessary for inter-communication are now provided by a number of “Communication Units.” These ensure ready and effective communication between the Commander-in-Chief and his Cavalry and his Infantry Divisions, between the Divisions themselves, as well as internally in each. This is now more important than ever, owing to the wider dispersion of the troops, and the absolute necessity of obtaining early intelligence about the enemy, and transmitting orders without delay. All means of Communication, whether by telegraph, wireless, telephone, day and night signalling, or despatch riders, should be under one organization. Each Command—Army, Division, Brigade—is now provided with means of communication forming integral portions of the Command, and trained Regimental Signallers carry on the system from Brigade Head-Quarters to the troops actually at the front. In no other army is the Telegraph system so completely organized, while Signalling is but little developed outside England.

Lines of Communication

In the British Service alone has the important principle been adopted of separating the duties on the Lines of Communication into two independent branches, that of their Protection, and that of their Administration, thus leaving the Officer charged with their administration to concentrate his attention on this vital matter. This Officer, the Inspector-General of L. of C., has now to assist him an adequate Staff, whose composition is organized beforehand, and no longer left to be improvised in war. The organization of the L. of C. has been remodelled, and the necessary Staffs allotted to the Base, Railhead, Advanced Depôts, and smaller posts. This will prevent confusion at the outset, and facilitate working on the L. of C.

The organization of the Administrative Services on the L. of C. has been elaborated in great detail, to ensure their efficient action. This applies especially to the Medical Services, whose organization is now as complete and well thought out as in any army in the world, and to the Transport and Supply Services, which, as explained in Chapter VII., are closely united, and likely, therefore, to work better together than in foreign armies, where Transport is a Combatant Unit, and Supply a Civil Department.

The great importance of Railways on the L. of C. has been fully realized. British war experience has of late been considerable, and the personnel required for working railways in war has been carefully thought out, and organized in great detail. The number of Railway Units has been increased, and, in their completion to war strength on mobilization, full advantage has been taken of the unrivalled resources of England in highly trained railway personnel.

Finance and Clerical Work

The financial difficulties met by an Army in the Field have been faced, and the C.-in-C. relieved from responsibility for them. An establishment of personnel to deal with Accounts and Audit accompanies the Army in the Field, and is stationed at the Base, so as to systematize the Finance and Accounts, and facilitate the custody and issue of cash for necessary administrative purposes.

A clerical establishment has been established in the Base Records Office, which should greatly relieve the fighting units from all possible clerical and office work which can be done at the Base.

Postal Service

A complete Postal Service for the Army in the Field has now been for the first time provided in the War Organization.

Reinforcements

The question of Reinforcements has been met by mobilizing with each Unit what are termed its First Reinforcements, at the rate of 10 per cent. of the rank and file. These accompany their Units to the theatre of operations, but are at first left at the Base in depôts which are organized on mobilization to receive them. From these depôts they can, when needed, be sent to reinforce their own Units at the front, without delay or confusion.

Reinforcements of “Second Line” Troops are provided from the “Imperial Service Section” of the Territorial Force, who can be sent abroad as Units for defence of Lines of Communication, escorting prisoners, guarding conquered territory, and all duties for which Second Line Troops are used in foreign armies.

Arrangements for Reinforcements in horses have been made, by registering private horses at home, and organizing the collection of horses purchased abroad, as well as by the organization of Remount Depôts on the L. of C.