Organization: How Armies are Formed for War

The formations in which each Arm is independently organized constitute the tactical units of an Army. Their strength and organization are intimately connected with the way in which they are used in fighting, and have varied little since armies first became regularly organized.

The general composition of these Units of each Arm in modern armies will now be described, beginning with Infantry, the principal Arm.

1. INFANTRY

Infantry, as will be seen in the historical portion of this work, used to be of various natures, such as Guards, Grenadiers, Fusiliers, Rifles, and Light Infantry, which still survive, but as names only. Napoleon said he wanted but one sort of Infantry, and that good Infantry. This aspiration may now be realized. All Infantry, however designated, is of one kind only, and works in the same manner in war.

The formations of Infantry are the Company, the Battalion, the Regiment, and the Brigade.

THE COMPANY

The Company, with its three officers—Captain, Lieutenant, and Ensign—and its Sergeants and Corporals, has been for centuries the foundation stone of the organization of Infantry. Its Chief, the Captain, is the officer with whom the men are most intimately associated, as he is responsible not only for their drill, discipline, and training, but also for their food, clothing, pay, and lodging. The men’s confidence in their Captain is grounded on this responsibility. It is to him that they learn to look for their well-being, comfort, and redress of grievances, as well as for praise or blame. The Captain is thus in daily contact with the men, and learns to know them, and be known by them. His influence with his men, owing to these personal relations, is the keystone of command and discipline, and makes him their natural leader in action.

To avoid repetition, it may be here mentioned that the same remarks apply to the Squadron and Battery Commanders, who, in the Cavalry and Artillery, hold the same position with regard to their men as the Captain does in the Infantry.

The Company is usually divided into Half-Companies, commanded by a Lieutenant, and into four Sections, each under a Sergeant; but the German Company has three Sections under a Lieutenant. The tactical movements of a Company in action are usually carried out by Sections.

THE BATTALION

The Battalion of 1,000 men is universally recognized as the Tactical Unit of Infantry. Operations are ordered, carried out, and recorded by Battalions. The Battalion is in modern armies provided with transport to carry its ammunition and entrenching tools, as well as its baggage and immediate supply of food, so as to render it independent.

The Battalion is commanded in foreign armies by a Major or his equivalent, but in the British and Russian Services by a Lieutenant-Colonel. The Battalion Commander is assisted by a Staff Officer, styled his Adjutant, and by a small Administrative Staff.

The number of Companies in a Battalion is, in the British Service, eight, with 3 officers and 120 men each, but in other armies four, with 4 or 5 officers and 240 men.

The system of dividing the Battalion into a few large companies was adopted in Prussia during the eighteenth century so as to economize in officers, partly to save expense, partly because of the dearth of men fit for commissions, in the increasing army of that small country. In the huge armies of to-day this system commends itself for the same reasons; while England and the United States have kept to small companies, with their original strength of about 100 men. Owing to the increasing difficulty of exercising control in battle, small companies give advantages as to Command. They also provide any necessary detachments, such as outposts and advanced guards, better than large companies, which may have to be broken up for these purposes. The fact, too, cannot be overlooked, that in an army of small companies there are four Captains more per thousand men, which gives a useful reserve of officers.

THE INFANTRY REGIMENT

Two, three, or four Battalions form a Regiment, designated by a number or by a permanent name, territorial or personal. In the Regiment are embodied the honourable traditions which have accrued in history, and the esprit de corps engendered by them. The officers are on one Regimental List for promotion, and so serve continuously in the Regiment. They thereby acquire a camaraderie, professional feeling, and personal intimacy with each other and with their men, of the greatest value in war. In foreign armies, with short service of two years, it is hardly too much to say that the Regimental Officers really constitute the permanent army, through which there flows continuously a stream of recruits, receiving a professional impress from their officers.

The Regiment is in foreign armies commanded by a Colonel (with sometimes a Lieutenant-Colonel), assisted by an Adjutant and a small Administrative Staff. The British Regiment is merely a peace organization never found as a whole in war, and the Battalion, with its Colonel and his Staff, its Colours and band, its traditions, history, and esprit de corps, represents what in foreign armies we find in the Regiment. The battalions of the foreign Regiment are merely its tactical units, just as the companies are to the Battalion.

THE INFANTRY BRIGADE

The Brigade is the largest body formed of Infantry only. In the British Service, where there is no Regimental organization in war, the Brigade comprises four battalions. In foreign armies it is composed of two Regiments (comprising six to eight battalions), a faulty organization for Command purposes, as shown in Chapter I.

Brigades are commanded by a Brigadier-General, with a Staff Officer, who is styled in England the Brigade Major.

2. CAVALRY

Cavalry, like Infantry, was once of many different natures—“Light,” “Heavy,” Hussars, Dragoons, Lancers, etc. These names still survive in the armies of Europe, but the regiments so designated now form practically only one sort of Cavalry, and are all trained for identical action in war, although they still bear their historic names and uniforms, and keep up the old rivalry of their corps traditions.

The formations of Cavalry are the Troop, the Squadron, the Regiment, and the Brigade.

THE SQUADRON

The Tactical Unit of Cavalry has since the seventeenth century been the Squadron of about 150 men. Its strength in different armies now varies between 130 and 180 men.

The Squadron is divided into four Troops, each of which is commanded by a Lieutenant. The Squadron leader is a Major or a Captain. The British Squadron has both these officers, and four Lieutenants.

THE CAVALRY REGIMENT

The Regiment is the permanent and administrative Cavalry Unit, and like the regiment of Infantry, has its special title or number, its own history and esprit de corps, and its band.

The number of Squadrons in a Regiment varies in different armies, there being generally four, but five in the Italian and Japanese, and six in the Austrian and Russian Services. There are three in the British Cavalry at home, but four in the Yeomanry and also in India. The Regiment thus forms a body of from 500 to 900 men, and is commanded by a Colonel, or a Lieutenant-Colonel, with an Adjutant as Staff Officer, besides a small Administrative Staff.

THE CAVALRY BRIGADE

The Brigade is formed in most armies of two Regiments, but in the British, American, and Swiss armies of three—a superior form of organization for Command, as shown in Chapter I., and one probably better suited for the tactics of Cavalry.

The Brigade is commanded by a Brigadier-General, with a Staff Officer (or Brigade Major).

3. ARTILLERY

Artillery is of many descriptions, differing in the guns they use, and their functions in war. Only that brought into the field with an army, as distinguished from Siege, Fortress, and Coast Artillery, will be here described. It may be divided into Field Artillery, Heavy Artillery, and Mountain Artillery.

FIELD ARTILLERY

Field Artillery in the most general sense means the Mounted Branch of the Arm, which possesses mobility, so as to accompany the other Arms. Its personnel does not march on foot, so that the guns can move at a pace beyond the walk, when desired. It comprises Field Artillery proper, or that armed with the Field Gun (or Field Howitzer) and Horse Artillery.

Field Guns form the larger portion of all Artillery in the field. They fire mainly shrapnel, or shell containing small round bullets which are very effective against the enemy’s men and horses, but useless against material objects. In foreign armies they have therefore a small amount of shell filled with high explosive, in addition to the shrapnel.

Field Howitzers use high-angle fire, giving a large angle of descent, so that they can search out the enemy’s trenches. They are provided with high-explosive shell in addition to shrapnel, so as to destroy masonry and field works, which the shrapnel of field guns cannot injure.

Both these varieties of Field Artillery have their Officers and Sergeants mounted, and carry their men seated on the gun limbers, or on the wagons, so that they can move at a trot.

Horse Artillery is provided for supporting Cavalry in action. It is armed with a lighter nature of field gun, and has its personnel mounted, so as to be very mobile. It can keep up with Cavalry both on the march and in action, and can move at the gallop when required.

HEAVY ARTILLERY

This comprises the heaviest guns and howitzers having sufficient mobility to accompany an army in the field. It uses shell filled with a high explosive, as well as a large shrapnel, and is therefore effective against field works and masonry as well as against men and horses. It differs from Field Artillery in having less mobility, but longer range and much greater effect. It generally comes into action at long ranges, and changes its position as little as possible in action. It will be very effective against the enemy’s artillery and field works, and its great range will allow it to bring oblique fire on the vital portions of his line.

Heavy Artillery is manned by the non-mounted Branch, called Garrison Artillery in England, and Foot Artillery abroad. It requires eight-horse teams, and moves only at a walk, the men marching on foot.

MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY

Artillery carried on pack animals is used in hilly, enclosed, or rough country, where wheels cannot pass. It is the weakest form of Artillery in shell-power, as it is armed with a light gun, which can be carried on a pack mule. A heavier gun can be carried, if formed of two parts, each about 200 lb. weight, or a load for one mule, which can be jointed together for action. The gun carriages, ammunition, and stores are also carried on mules, and the personnel marches on foot, and is provided from the “Foot” (or “Garrison”) Artillery. The slowness of Mountain compared to Field Artillery is compensated in broken country by its ability to take cover, and to come into action in places inaccessible to Field Guns, so that it can support Infantry more closely.

THE BATTERY

The Tactical Unit of Artillery is the Battery, of 4, 6, or 8 guns, with 1 to 3 Ammunition Wagons to each gun. Field guns and wagons have six-horse teams; Heavy Artillery has eight-horse teams.

In France, Switzerland, Turkey and the United States all Batteries are of 4 guns.

In other armies all Field and Horse Artillery Batteries are of 6 guns, except in Austria, where Horse Artillery has 4-gun Batteries, and in Russia, where Field Batteries have 8 guns.

Heavy Batteries have generally 4 guns, owing to the number of wagons required to carry a sufficient amount of their heavy ammunition.

Mountain Batteries have 4 guns, except in Russia, where they have 8.

The Battery in all armies has a strength of from 130 to 200 men and horses. It is divided into Sections of 2 guns with their wagons, commanded by a Lieutenant, and these into Sub-Sections under a Sergeant. The Battery Commander is a Captain, except in the Russian Service, where he is a Lieutenant-Colonel, and in the British Service, where he is a Major, with a Captain as Second-in-Command to take charge of the Ammunition Supply in action. To assist the Battery Commander in action, he has a Staff comprising trumpeters, rangetakers, observers, signallers, mounted orderlies, scouts, and horse-holders. There is also a small Administrative Staff, including artificers for repair of harness and carriages.

THE ARTILLERY BRIGADE

Batteries are grouped into larger Units, called in the British Service Brigades. They are commanded by a Lieutenant-Colonel, with an Adjutant, and a Staff for purposes of observation and command, including telephone and signalling detachments, rangetakers, and orderlies. This Unit is called an Abteilung in Germany, a Groupe in France, a Division in Russia and Austria, and a Battalion in Japan and the United States. It comprises as a rule three batteries of Field Guns, or of Howitzers (or two batteries of Horse Artillery), with an Ammunition Column. Heavy Batteries in the British Service are not brigaded, but one, with its own Ammunition Column, forms part of the Artillery of each Division. In foreign armies they are grouped by twos or fours into Battalions.

HIGHER UNITS OF ARTILLERY

In foreign armies the above Units of three batteries are grouped by pairs into Artillery Regiments, commanded by a Colonel with a Staff. The Divisional Artillery and the Corps Artillery are respectively formed of one or more Regiments.

Two Artillery Regiments are in some armies grouped into an Artillery Brigade, which forms the Divisional or Corps Artillery, and is commanded by a General with a Staff.

AMMUNITION COLUMNS

Ammunition Columns form an integral part of the Artillery, but they carry ammunition for Infantry as well as for the guns. They are Fighting Units, because the replenishment of ammunition is a function of the Fighting Troops, and the movements of Ammunition Columns are tactical operations. The Ammunition Columns belonging to Units of Artillery provide the first reserve of ammunition. The second reserve of ammunition is provided by Divisional Ammunition Columns, which in foreign armies form the Divisional Ammunition Park. There is in large armies also an Army Corps Ammunition Park comprising several Columns, and an Army Ammunition Park, behind which are the Ammunition Depôts on the L. of C.

The Ammunition Columns constitute also a reserve to draw on for officers, men, teams, and matériel, to replace the losses of the Batteries. In Manchuria, the men of the Ammunition Columns were, within twelve months, all absorbed by the Batteries.

An Ammunition Column comprises about 150 to 200 men and as many horses, with from 20 to 30 ammunition wagons.

BRITISH AMMUNITION SUPPLY

In the British Service the organization of the Ammunition Supply is as follows:

The Field Battery and Horse Artillery ammunition wagons carry 176 rounds per gun, those of a Howitzer Battery 88, and of a Heavy Battery 76 rounds per gun.

The Ammunition Column of each Field Artillery Brigade carries 200 rounds per gun for its Brigade. It carries also rifle ammunition (100 rounds per rifle) for one Infantry Brigade. The Horse Artillery Ammunition Column carries a supply of rifle ammunition (100 rounds per rifle) for the Mounted Troops, in addition to gun ammunition at the rate of 220 rounds per gun.

The Ammunition Column of a Howitzer Brigade, and that of a Heavy Battery, which have to carry heavier gun-ammunition, at the rate of 70 and 98 rounds per gun respectively, carry no rifle ammunition.

The Divisional Ammunition Column is divided into 4 Sections, giving three for the three Field Artillery Brigades (carrying 120 rounds per gun), and one Section with ammunition for the Howitzer Brigade (92 rounds per gun) and for the Heavy Battery (80 rounds per gun), and also for a proportion of the guns with the Mounted Troops. Each of the first three Sections carries a reserve of 100 rounds per rifle for one Infantry Brigade. The fourth Section, having heavier gun-ammunition to carry, is not burdened with any rifle ammunition.

The number of rounds of ammunition with the Force in the field is as follows:

GUN AMMUNITION

Total with troops, about 500 rounds per Field Gun, and rather more per Horse Artillery Gun. Per Howitzer, or Heavy Gun, about half that per Field Gun. About an equal amount is in Ordnance Store charge on the L. of C. ready to replace what is expended.

SMALL-ARM AMMUNITION

ROUNDS PER RIFLE

ROUNDS PER MACHINE GUN

Ammunition for Machine Guns with Infantry is allotted as follows: With each gun, 3,500 rounds; in Regimental Reserve, 8,000; in Brigade Ammunition Column, 10,000; in Divisional Ammunition Column, 10,000. Guns with Cavalry have the same, except twice as much in Regimental Reserve.

4. ENGINEERS

Engineers are allotted to the larger formations of all Arms in the field, to carry out the varied work required with the troops at the front, as described in Chapter II.

In foreign armies they are organized in Companies belonging to the Engineer Battalion of the Army Corps, and one Company is allotted to each Division, and one to the Corps Troops. Its strength is that of the Infantry Company (250 men), under a Captain, with three or four officers. In order that its tools and stores shall accompany it and be at hand for work, each Company has transport allotted to it from the “Train Battalion” of the Army Corps. The Cavalry Division has generally some Engineers, who are mounted or carried on wagons, so as to keep up with the Division.

A reserve of tools and equipment for the Companies is carried by a column of wagons called the Army Corps Engineer Park.

In the British Service there are with each Division two Field Companies of Engineers, each having 156 working sappers, and with the Cavalry Division four Field Troops, each with 40 working sappers, half of whom are mounted, half carried on the tool carts. Thus, if a Cavalry Brigade is detached, it can take with it a Field Troop of Engineers. The drivers and transport are integral portions of the Engineer Troops and Companies.

Telegraph Companies of Engineers are in all armies allotted to each Command for inter-communication purposes. Those of the British Service are described later among the Administrative Services, in Chapter IX.

Another Unit of Engineers is the Bridging Train, which supplements the small bridge equipment carried by the Engineer Field Companies. In foreign armies these Trains are manned by Engineers, but horsed by the “Train,” and one is allotted to each Division and Army Corps. In the British Service the Bridging Trains are “Army Troops,” and are not allotted to Divisions.