Scarabs / The History, Manufacture and Symbolism of the Scarabæus in Ancient Egypt, Phoenicia, Sardinia, Etruria, etc.

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II.ToC

The representations of the insect are among the earliest sculpture of stones known, and were cut in various materials, steatite a species of soapstone being one of the earliest used. Some were perhaps first moulded in clay, dried, and then cut into shape.

Many of those in use in Egypt were carved out of opaque or semi-transparent stones, and those cut in hard stone were usually made of some one of the following varieties: green basalt, diorite, granite, hæmatite, lapis lazuli, jasper, serpentine, verde antique, smalt, root of emerald, which is the same as plasma or prase[19] cornelian, amethyst, sardonyx, agate and onyx. Those of soft material were cut out of steatite, a soft limestone similar to chalk, but usually they were of a white or grayish slaty stone easily cut and which stood fire. After having been cut into the correct shape, these were glazed in the fire, with enamels of different colors, usually of a light bluish green. Those found now of a brownish or dirty white color, have lost the original color of the glaze from the ravages of time. Some were of clay only sun-dried, others of clay burned into pottery. They were also made of porcelain, and also, but rarely, of colored glass. They have also been found made of gold, ivory and even of wood. Champollion thinks, that certain signets found made of wood or pottery bearing the figure of the scarabæus in intaglio, were used to mark the victims which had been examined and passed as proper for the sacrifice. The scarabs, as we have remarked, were usually engraved with incised hieroglyphic symbols on the under side, frequently with those used on one of his cartouches by the reigning pharaoh, and were then worn by their owners to show veneration for him, as the representative of the deity upon earth, or from national pride. The names of deities, officials, private persons, and even only monograms or devices, at later periods, were engraved on the bases. The best class were usually made of a fine, hard, green basalt; sometimes they were joined to the representation of the human heart on which was inscribed "Life, Stability and Protection." This was evidently talismanic.

The principal period of their manufacture in large quantities, was in the reign of Tehuti-mes, or Thotmes IIIrd, of the XVIIIth Dynasty (circa 1600-1566 B.C.) Other times were the XIXth and XXth Dynasties.

The large and small scarabs form two classes. Those two to three inches in length belong to the larger, and were usually for use inside of the mummies in place of the heart. There are also some of very large size; one made of basalt now in the British Museum, is five feet high.

The making of the shape of the scarab in cameo, in soft material was easily done, and the incising of its flat under surface with the hieroglyphics not difficult; the artist most likely used, one or more instruments of different sizes, formed at the end like a very small chisel or bradawl, and gouged or punched out the figures and inscriptions desired, before the glazing or enameling was put on, this gave a flat appearance at the depth or bottom of the incised work. On those of hard stone they used hand-drills or the lathe.

I condense the following remarks, adding however some of my own, from a very valuable little book recently published by the learned egyptologist Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie, entitled: Historical Scarabs.[20]

I regret Mr. Petrie's lithographic drawings are so blurred that they are difficult to read, and hope that he will, in the near future, get out a more artistic and complete book on this important subject.[21]

He shows 2,220 examples of incised historical scarabs. The first genuine historical scarabs he gives copies of, are those of Neb-ka of the IIIrd Dynasty; (circa 3933-3900 B.C.) He also shows some of the period of Nefer-ka-Ra or Huni, mentioned in Brugsch's History of the Pharaohs, pages 27 and 32; who lived 3800 B.C. The name Ra, forming part of the king's name at this period, is very unusual. It was not used, as a portion of his name, by any other Egyptian king from the Ist Dynasty to the second king of the IVth or Great Pyramid Dynasty, named Tatf-Ra. The next king to him was Khaf-Ra. The reign of Tatf-Ra was preceded by that of Khufu, the Kheops of the Greek writers, builder of the Great Pyramid; (circa 3733-3700 B.C.)

The scarabs of the time of Khufu are all small and of fine work but without elaboration, and the colors are delicate, beautiful and permanent. Under Khaf-Ra or Khefren, there was a deterioration; the work is inferior and the glazing has often perished, indeed good glazes are rare after this period until the XIth Dynasty; (circa 2500 B.C.) The glazes of this latter period are hard, unalterable and of fine colors, some under the XIIth are fine but often they are decomposed. Blue is a special color of this time and it is also used in the sculpture. Under Pepi, IVth Dynasty, (circa 3233 B.C.,) the scroll pattern first arises as a system, but is not found continuously in the scarabs of his period. In the XIIth Dynasty, (2466-2266 B.C.,) the continuous scroll pattern was developed, it became general in the XIIIth, (circa 2233 B.C.,)and XIVth Dynasties, and lingered as far as the XIXth (1400 B.C.)

Brown scarabs were originally green glazed but have faded, white were originally blue, excepting possibly some of Amen-hotep IIIrd. There are also white and gray, without any glaze remaining, which were originally blue or green.

The cowroids, with a rope border on the back, are of the Hyksos period.

The XVIIIth Dynasty (1700-1400 B.C.,) begins with some of a poor style but it soon disappeared. The peculiarity of the first part of this Dynasty is the dark green glaze—rather greyish—this was followed by those of brilliant tints in the time of Amen-hotep IIIrd, (1500-1433 B.C.,) those of red, yellow, violet, chocolate and other colors. They are never met with later.

At the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty, pottery rings came into general use and are more frequently met with than scarabs. Their range is from Amen-hotep IIIrd to Rameses IInd.

In the XVIIIth Dynasty the art of glazing deteriorated, and most of the scarabs of this period have now lost their original colors, and are at present only browns and greys.

Under Rameses IInd and his successors the work is poorly done.

In the XXIVth (the Saïtic Period, circa 733 B.C.,) and in the XXVth Dynasties, there was a revival and better work and glaze and there remain of this time some fine examples.

The XXVIth (666-528 B.C. Saïtic,) was poor in results but the work neat. The scarab form had nearly run its course and continued, in a debased style, until the close of the native monarchy with the XXXth Dynasty (circa 378 B.C.)

Place had much to do with the difference between scarabs, local styles of manufacture made more differences than various Dynasties. This is a subject very difficult to investigate; we have but few sources of information on this subject. At ancient Tanis (now called by the Arabs, San,) they are all of schist, rough and small, the glaze nearly always gone; within a short distance from there, at Nebesheh, they are usually of pottery with bright apple-green glazes; at Naukratis, the Ancient Egyptian name of which was Am and which was a city in the time of the XIIth Dynasty, they are mostly of soft glazed pottery, or, of a blue paste, and nearly all are small; in the ruins of this city was found a factory for making Greek scarabs in imitation of the Egyptian style.[22] It is said, that those with scroll border, are from the ancient city of Abydos.

A curious thing is, the re-issue of those of an earlier king by a later monarch, examples of these are, re-issues under queen Hatshepsu (circa 1600 B.C.,) and Tehuti-mes IIIrd (circa 1600-1566 B.C.,) of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The earlier and later names are often on one scarab. We cannot therefore be sure of the age of a scarab, even from the inscription, as it may be of a period subsequent to the king named on it. However these re-issues were only in a few special periods. One point to be noted is, we find similar work and color in the majority of those made under each pharaoh, and such style is different from that of any earlier or later age; through this we have a guide as to the original dating of most scarabs from the IVth Dynasty to the end. No subsequent period shows us similarities to the majority of the scarabs of any one king.

To the unlearned probably all scarabs look alike, but to an eye educated on the subject, the peculiarities of each Dynasty, and even of separate reigns, become evident. The value of scarabs to the historian is therefore great, as the study of scarabs will reveal, the names of kings unknown heretofore from any of the other monuments so far discovered.

FOOTNOTES:

III.ToC

The art of the lapidary is asserted in the Book of Enoch, to have been taught to mankind by the angel Azazel,[23] chief of the angels who took to themselves wives from among the daughters of men. The most ancient method consisted, in obtaining a flat surface by rubbing or scraping, with corundum or other hard and wearing stone, the stone to be engraved. If a very hard stone, the incising or cutting was done by drilling, wearing and polishing, through attrition, by means of a wooden or metal point, kept in connection with a silicious sand or corundum, by the medium of oil or water; and also, by the use of the punch and of the wheel. The Greek artists likely used powdered emery and copper drills. Bronze and iron drills, and those of other metals may have been used at a very early period. Pliny says, corundum was used in the form of a splinter fixed in an iron style. The ancients also appear at a very early period, to have used diamond dust and oil, and diamond splinters, framed in iron.

It has been shown by recent investigations, that the Ancient Egyptians, before the building of the Great Pyramid; cut diorite, syenite and other very hard stone, by means of saws, some of them nine feet long, having jeweled teeth inserted; and that they excavated the centre of large blocks of hard stones for use as sarcophagi, etc., by means of tubular or circular hollow drills, the cutting surface of which was armed with jewels. They then took out the core and broke down the partitions between the drilled holes, with the chisel and hammer, and thus made large excavations in the block of hard stone. They also used lathes at a most archaic period in cutting diorite and other hard stones.[24] They also used the bow-drill,[25] They also may have known and used boort.

As early as the first Theban Dynasty, the XIIth Egyptian (2466-2266 B.C.,) the Dynasty in which lived the Amen-em-hats and the Usertsens, the great early art period of the Egyptian empire,[26] the Egyptians engraved on amethyst, jasper and rock crystal, and at that early period did some of the most beautiful work remaining to us of their glyptography. The signets however were not always in scarab form, they were sometimes squares or parallelograms.[27]

There is now in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris, France, the finest old cameo in the world. It is of the reign of Amen-em-hat IIIrd of the XIIth Dynasty, (2300 B.C.) This was the first Theban Dynasty and is a very rare period for Egyptian cameo work, as they then usually incised their engraving on precious stones and did not engrave them in relief.[28] The stone is a square sardonyx and is engraved in relief, with great fineness on one side, with a figure the name of which can be read Ha-ro-bes, the other side is incised and has the figure of a pharaoh killing a prisoner, whom he holds by the beard, with a mace; the cartouch reads, Ra-en-ma, i.e., Amen-em-hat IIIrd. The intaglio work on this side is not equal to that in cameo, on the other.

There is yet in existence the signet ring of the celebrated Queen Hatshepsu (circa 1600-1566 B.C.) It is made of fine turquoise, cut in the form of a scarab, perforated longitudinally and hung on a swivel. On the under side is engraved the family name of the Queen.[29] There also exists the signet ring of Amen-hotep IInd, (1566-1533 B.C.,) having inserted in it a fine green glazed scarab.[30]

The description of the working and engraving of precious stones in the VIIth century before our era, is given in Ezekiel[31] where addressing the king of Tyre, he says: "Thou art covered with precious stones of all kinds, with the ruby, emerald, diamond, hyacinth, onyx, jasper, sapphire, carbuncle, sardonyx and gold. The wheels and drills of the lapidaries, were prepared in thy service for the day in which thou wert created."

The use of the signet ring is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament.[32] There, are also the phrases, "Sealed up in a bag;"[33] "A book that is sealed;"[34] "Written evidence sealed;"[35] "Sealed with clay;"[36] "Sealing with the signet of the king."[37] There are also many places referring to the use of seals in the New Testament.

In Genesis, we find Thamar asking from Judah, his seal, seal string and staff; in pledge.[38] In the same book, but referring to a much later period,[39] Pharaoh takes his signet ring, in which was likely set a scarab, from his hand and puts it on the hand of Joseph, so as to confer sovereign authority upon him.[40]

In Exodus,[41] mention is made of the engraving of Shoham stones as a signet, i.e., in intaglio, as done by Betzaleel for the ephod of the High Priest, and for his breastplate, engraved in the same way; these were hard precious stones. We do not know with certainty the names of these stones in English. The Hebrew names of those on the first row of the ephod, are; odem, piteda, bareketh; second row, nophesh, saphir, yahlome; third row, leshéme, shevo, a'halama; fourth and last row, tarshish, shokam, yoshphé.

Some archæologists argue, that the original form of the Egyptian seal was that of a cylinder, and from thence would deduce, that the Egyptians, or at the least Egyptian art, came from Mesopotamia. I would now say, that I do not believe that fact can be correctly deduced, from the cylindrical form sometimes used in Egypt. The cylinder perforated is only a form of the bead, and beads were one of the earliest forms of decoration and ornament, used by primitive man. The earliest shape of genuine seals known and used in Egypt, is that in the scarab form and that form is peculiarly Egyptian; cylinders however were sometimes used by that people in early times. The Egyptians at a time, to us beyond all positive history, took advantage of and used the intaglio seal, so as to secure, by its impression, the authenticity of personal acts whether done by the sovereign, his chancellor, or his treasurer, or by private individuals; and they sometimes made use of signets of a cylindrical form, which they applied upon clay or wax, but such were not frequently used in Egypt. The cartouch of the earliest known king, Mena, (4400 B.C.,) is in the form of the outline of the under side of the scarab.

It was because of its shape, the oval, ellipse, or ring form of the line around the cartouch, it not having an end; that the pharaohs, always having in mind immortality, have placed their names within that form. The incised oval capable of producing millions of impressions, would also be thought of as an emblem of reproduction, renewment and eternity.

Indeed in all the different epochs of its greatness, we will find used in Egypt, a few cylinders of hard stone upon which are well engraved cartouches. There is one in serpentine in the National Library of Paris bearing the name of Khufu or Kheops, of the IVth Dynasty, (3733 B.C.,) builder of the Great Pyramid at Gizeh. They have been found of soapstone made in the period of the IVth Dynasty, and of schist enameled green, of the periods of Amen-em-hat Ist, Amen-em-hat IInd and of Sovkhotpu IIIrd, pharaohs of the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties. These were royal cylinders. After the XVIIIth Dynasty such are very rare in that form.

"The cylinders," says a very learned writer upon Oriental Glyptic Art; "whatever may be their material, have never shown the mark of a foreign influence upon the soil of Egypt. Nevertheless the relations of Egypt and Chaldea date from the very highest antiquity."[42] Scarabs became unfashionable in Egypt in the XIIth Dynasty and cylinders were largely used. They were used by the Usertsens and the Amen-em-has, but after the XIIth Dynasty cylinders are rare in Egypt. The shape of the cartouch does not appear to have been changed.

Rings came into fashion with Amen-hotep IIIrd and died out under Rameses IInd, the last king whose name we find on a bezel. I do not deny that relations existed from the most archaic periods between the people of Mesopotamia and those of Egypt, the discoveries of the magnificent sculpture in and beautifully incised writing on, green diorite; one of the hardest, toughest, and heaviest, stones known; found at Telloh by M. de Sarzec, which had to be brought in large blocks from the quarries of Sinai; take us back to the most remote period, in which we have any knowledge of the inhabitants of Lower Mesopotamia. One of the most wonderful ancient statues in existence is that of king Khaf-Ra of the IVth Dynasty, the Khephren of the Greek writers, builder of the second Great Pyramid of Gizeh, (circa 3666 B.C.,) now in the Museum of Gizeh, Egypt. This statue, a full sized portrait-statue, is made of green diorite highly polished and is a magnificent work of Egyptian art. Its base is inscribed: "Image of the Golden Horus, Khephren, beautiful god, lord of diadems."[43] This shows, that the Egyptians worked the quarries of diorite at Sinai and sculptured in it, about 4000 B.C.[44] The figures found at Telloh are in a seated position, are sculptured in archaic Egyptian style, and are covered with beautifully incised writing.[45]

I also know from the cuneiform inscriptions, that relations existed between the First Empire of Chaldea and the pharaohs of the Great Pyramids of Gizeh, as early as the reign of the Chaldean king Naram-Sin; (circa 3755 B.C.) Subsequent to the periods cited, there exist a number of historical facts showing the knowledge of each other, possessed by the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile and the people of Mesopotamia.[46]

The same specialist in Oriental glyptics, says: "The efforts of some learned men to discover traces of a reciprocal influence have been fruitless. The pyramids of Egypt have no affinity with those of Chaldea, the sculpture of Egypt does not resemble in anything that of Nineveh or Caleh; would the glyptic art have escaped that individual development which characterizes the two peoples? I think not; at least we have no proof of it."[47]

And a very erudite archæologist of our day, Hodder M. Westropp, holds; that the Assyrian cylinders came into that country from Egypt and did not come from Assyria into Egypt.[48]

Scarabs went out of use under the so-called Heretic kings of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Some fine enamel work on other subjects was made in this period, showing that art had not degenerated, indeed the discoveries made in the ruins of Khuaten, the present town called Tell-el-Amarna, show remains of magnificent monuments sculptured in the period of the Heretic kings of Egypt, (circa 1466-1400 B.C.)

The scarab became again in use in the time of Hor-em-heb and Sethi I., and rings again became fashionable in Egypt.

After the fall of the Ramessidian kings, the priestly Dynasty of Her-hor does not appear to have made use of them very largely. In the recent great discovery at Dayr-el-Baharee very few were found, and none bearing the name of Her-hor or his immediate family.

FOOTNOTES:

IV.ToC

The oldest scarabs, as to which one can feel any certainty of their being genuine, are those I have mentioned bearing the name of Neb-Ka incised on the under surface. This pharaoh was of the IIIrd Dynasty and was living according to Brugsch-Bey, (3933-3900 B.C.)[49] That would make 5,826 years past according to Brugsch. Auguste Mariette would make it much more ancient.

These scarabs were made of pottery and glazed a pale green. It has been stated by some archæologists that the oldest scarabs were not engraved, the under part being made to represent the legs of the beetle folded under its body, but this is only a supposition, as the age can only be determined with any certainty, by the inscriptions incised on the under part and those not so inscribed, may be of different periods, some of very late times.

The forms usually met with in the tombs are, first; those with the lower part as a flat level surface for the purpose of having an inscription incised upon it; those having the engraving incised upon such a surface; and those with the legs inserted under them in imitation of nature. Sometimes the head and thorax are replaced by a human face, and occasionally the body or the elytra have the form of the Egyptian royal cap.

They often hold between the fore-legs representations of the sun.

The smaller scarabs have as subjects engraved upon them, representations of the Egyptian deities, the names of the reigning pharaohs, of queens, animals, religious symbols, sacred, civil and funeral emblems, names of priests, nobles, officers of state and private individuals, ornaments, plants, and sometimes dates and numbers written in ciphers. Some have upon them mottoes, such as: "Good Luck," "A Happy Life," etc., being used for sealing letters, etc., and as presents. The larger sized have frequently texts and parts of chapters from the Book of the Dead.

We can therefore make a general classification of scarabs into:

I. Mythological or Religious, containing subjects, figures or inscriptions, connected with kosmogony, kosmology, or, religion.

II. Historical, containing royal cartouches and names of men, and figures relating to civil customs.

III. Physiographical, containing animals or plants connected with consecrated symbols.

IV. Funereal, connected with the Ka or life of the mummy in this world, and with the journey of his Ba or responsible soul, through the under-world.

V. Talisman or Amulets, to preserve the wearer from injury in this world, by men or by evil spirits.

VI. Signets or Seals for official use, to verify documents or evidence, protect property and correspondence, etc.

VII. And others, which have upon them only ornamental designs, as to which we cannot, up to this time, ascertain the meaning.

The Historical scarabs are of great value in ascertaining or displaying, in chronological series, the cartouches or shield names, if I may be permitted thus to term them, of the monarchs of Egypt; going from the most remote antiquity of the Egyptian kingdom, to A.D. 200.

"The Ancient Egyptians," remarks the Rev. Mr. Loftie, in his admirable little book; Of Scarabs, p. 30 et seq., "happy people, had no money on which to stamp the image and superscription of their Pharaohs. A collection of scarabs, inscribed with the names of kings, stands therefore to Egyptian history as a collection of coins stands to the history of the younger nations of the earth. The day must come when our Universities and other bodies of learned folk, will study the beginnings of things as they are presented in Egyptian history, and some knowledge of these curious little objects will become indispensable to an educated man * * * * The collection now arranged in the British Museum is second to none."

I would also say, those in the Louvre at Paris, are now arranged chronologically. A good collection is also in the Egyptian Museum at Gizeh, collected by M. Mariette; formerly it was very fine. Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie asserts[50] that most have been stolen, and further says: "I hear that they were mainly sold to General Cesnola for New York." If these are in the possession of the Metropolitan Museum of New York City, it possesses a genuine and rare collection of scarabs.

A large number of scarabs bear the names of the pharaonic kings; this is not strange when we remember that the pharaoh was Horus, Khepera, and also a son of Ra and of Osiris. These cartouches are those of kings of orthodox Egyptian descent, we do not find the names of the Greek Ptolemies upon them, the Roman Emperors, as conquerors, sometimes used them but that does not prove their abstract right to do so.

The latest, in the collection belonging to France, is of Nectanebo the last native pharaoh, (circa 300 B.C.)

Some of them, as did those of Thotmes IIIrd, bear the inscription, Ra-men-kheper, i.e., Ra, the sun-god establishes the future resurrection. This is found on fully one-half of the specimens from the XVIIIth Dynasty down.

The art of making the scarabs as I have said before, varies with the epochs. The most elegantly finished are those of the time of the IVth Dynasty (3733-3600 B.C.,) that of the Great Pyramids; in the XIIth Dynasty (2466-2266 B.C.,) fine work again appears, then comes inartistic work. Again with the XVIIIth Dynasty (1700-1433 B.C.,) arises another period of splendor, and the art after again deteriorating revived under the XXVIth, the Saïtic Dynasty, (666-528 B.C.)

Amenophis (or Amen-hotep) IIIrd of the XVIIIth Dynasty, the Memnon of the Greeks,[51] (circa 1500-1466 B.C.,) had a number of large scarabs made, their object was not sepulchral nor were they to be used as talisman, but they apparently were made for the incising upon them, of purely historical inscriptions; such monuments are exceedingly rare and are almost limited to the time of this Pharaoh. In the great building erected by him, now known as the Temple of Luxor, were found four of these great inscribed scarabs. Rosellini has given copies and explanations of two of them. Dr. Samuel Birch has given a translation of them, which I think is subject to revision.[52] One relates to the marriage of Amen-hotep IIIrd in the tenth year of his reign, with his queen Thya, (Taia, or Thai;) a second relates to the same subject and to the arrival of Thya and Gilukipa in Egypt, with 317 women; a third, now in the Vatican, mentions a tank or sacred lake, made for the queen Thya, in the eleventh year and third month of his reign, to celebrate the Festival of the Waters, on which occasion he entered it, in a boat of "the most gracious Disk of Ra," i.e., the sun-god. This substitution of the boat of the "Disk of Ra" for the usual boat of Amen-Ra, is the first indication of a new, or heretical, sun worship.[53]

One in the Museum of the Louvre (No. 580-747, Vitrine N.) reads: "The living Horus, the bull strong through the Ma, the sovereign of the two regions, supporter of the laws and preserver of the land (country,) the Horus triumphant and great by his valor, vanquisher of the Asiatics, king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Ra-ma-neb (the prenomen of the king,) son of the sun, Amenophis III., giving life. The queen Taia living.

Account of the lions brought from Asia by his Majesty, namely: from the first year to the tenth, savage lions 102."

Another in the same Museum (582-787, Vitrine N.) This begins, as the preceding, with an eulogy of Amenophis III. and follows with: "The principal consort Taia, living, the name of her father (is) Auaa. The name of her mother (is) Tuaa, She is the consort of the victorious king whose frontiers (extend) to the south as far as Ka ro (or, Karai, perhaps Soudan,) to the north as far as Naharina," i.e., Mesopotamia. There are many other historical scarabs in this Museum but these have the longest and most important inscriptions.

Another scarab of this Pharaoh is in the collection of the Rev. W.J. Loftie, of London, England. It is large, 3½ inches long by 2¼ inches wide, it is made of steatite and glazed; it tells: "The number of fierce lions brought in by his majesty, and killed by him, from the beginning of his first (year) to the tenth year of his reign, were 102."[54]