Sound

Let us vary this experiment. This silk cord is carried from the tuning-fork over the pulley, and stretched by a weight of 80 grains. The string vibrates as a whole as at A, Fig. 50. By diminishing the weight the string is relaxed, and finally divides sharply into two ventral segments, as at B, Fig. 50. What is now the stretching weight?—20 grains, or one-fourth of the first. With a stretching weight of almost exactly 9 grains it divides into three segments, as at C; while with a stretching weight of 5 grains it divides into four segments, as at D. Thus then, a tension of one-fourth doubles, a tension of one-ninth trebles, and a tension of one-sixteenth quadruples the number of ventral segments. In general terms, the number of segments is inversely proportional to the square root of the tension. This result may be deduced by reasoning from our first and third laws, and its realization here confirms their correctness.

Thus, by a series of reasonings and experiments totally different from those formerly employed, we arrive at the self-same laws. In science, different lines of reasoning often converge upon the same truth; and if we only follow them faithfully, we are sure to reach that truth at last. We may emerge, and often do emerge, from our reasoning with a contradiction in our hands; but on retracing our steps, we infallibly find the cause of the contradiction to be due, not to any lack of constancy in Nature, but of accuracy in man. It is the millions of experiences of this kind which science furnishes that give us our present faith in the stability of Nature.

HARMONIC SOUNDS OR OVERTONES

§ 9. Timbre; Klangfarbe; Clang-tint

We now approach a portion of our subject which will subsequently prove to be of the very highest importance. It has been shown by the most varied experiments that a stretched string can either vibrate as a whole, or divide itself into a number of equal parts, each of which vibrates as an independent string. Now it is not possible to sound the string as a whole without at the same time causing, to a greater or less extent, its subdivision; that is to say, superposed upon the vibrations of the whole string we have always, in a greater or less degree, the vibrations of its aliquot parts. The higher notes produced by these latter vibrations are called the harmonics of the string. And so it is with other sounding bodies; we have in all cases a coexistence of vibrations. Higher tones mingle with the fundamental one, and it is their intermixture which determines what, for want of a better term, we call the quality of the sound. The French call it timbre, and the Germans call it Klangfarbe.38 It is this union of high and low tones that enables us to distinguish one musical instrument from another. A clarinet and a violin, for example, though tuned to the same fundamental note, are not confounded; the auxiliary tones of the one are different from those of the other, and these latter tones, uniting themselves to the fundamental tones of the two instruments, destroy the identity of the sounds.

All bodies and instruments, then, employed for producing musical sounds emit, besides their fundamental tones, others due to higher orders of vibration. The Germans embrace all such sounds under the general term Obertöne. I think it will be an advantage if we in England adopt the term overtones as the equivalent of the term employed in Germany. One has occasion to envy the power of the German language to adapt itself to requirements of this nature. The term Klangfarbe, for example, employed by Helmholtz is exceedingly expressive, and we need its equivalent also. Color depends upon rapidity of vibration, blue light bearing to red the same relation that a high tone does to a low one. A simple color has but one rate of vibration, and it may be regarded as the analogue of a simple tone in music. A tone, then, may be defined as the product of a vibration which cannot be decomposed into more simple ones. A compound color, on the contrary, is produced by the admixture of two or more simple ones, and an assemblage of tones, such as we obtain when the fundamental tone and the harmonics of a string sound together, is called by the Germans a Klang. May we not employ the English word clang to denote the same thing, and thus give the term a precise scientific meaning akin to its popular one? And may we not, like Helmholtz, add the word color or tint, to denote the character of the clang, using the term clang-tint as the equivalent of Klangfarbe?

With your permission I shall henceforth employ these terms; and now it becomes our duty to look a little more closely than we have hitherto done into the subdivision of a string into its harmonic segments. Our monochord with its stretched wire is before you. The scale of the instrument is divided into 100 equal parts. At the middle point of the wire stands the number 50; at a point almost exactly one-third of its length from its end stands the number 33; while at distances equal to one-fourth and one-fifth of its length from its end stand the numbers 25 and 20 respectively. These numbers are sufficient for our present purpose. When the wire is plucked at 50 you hear its clang, rather hollow and dull. When plucked at 33, the clang is different. When plucked at 25, the clang is different from either of the former. As we retreat from the centre of the string, the clang-tint becomes more “brilliant,” the sound more brisk and sharp. What is the reason of these differences in the sound of the same wire?

The celebrated Thomas Young, once professor in this Institution, enables us to solve the question. He proved that when any point of a string is plucked, all the higher tones which require that point for a node vanish from the clang. Let me illustrate this experimentally. I pluck the point 50, and permit the string to sound. It may be proved that the first overtone, which corresponds to a division of the string into two vibrating parts, is now absent from the clang. If it were present, the damping of the point 50 would not interfere with it, for this point would be its node. But on damping the point 50 the fundamental tone is quenched, and no octave of that tone is heard. Along with the octave its whole progeny of overtones, with rates of vibration four times, six times, eight times—all even numbers of times—the rate of the fundamental tone, disappear from the clang. All these tones require that a node should exist at the centre, where, according to the principle of Young, it cannot now be formed. Let us pluck some other point, say 25, and damp 50 as before. The fundamental tone is now gone, but its octave, clear and full, rings in your ears. The point 50 in this case not being the one plucked, a node can form there; it has formed, and the two halves of the string continue to vibrate after the vibrations of the string as a whole have been extinguished. Plucking the point 33, the second harmonic or overtone is absent from the clang. This is proved by damping the point 33. If the second harmonic were on the string this would not affect it, for 33 is its node. The fundamental is quenched, but no tone corresponding to a division of the string into three vibrating parts is now heard. The tone is not heard because it was never there.

All the overtones which depend on this division, those with six times, nine times, twelve times the rate of vibration of the fundamental one, are also withdrawn from the clang. Let us now pluck 20, damping 33 as before. The second harmonic is not extinguished, but continues to sound clearly and fully after the extinction of the fundamental tone. In this case the point 33 not being that plucked, a node can form there, and the string can divide itself into three parts accordingly. In like manner, if 25 be plucked and then damped, the third harmonic is not heard; but when a point between 25 and the end of the wire is plucked, and the point 25 damped, the third harmonic is plainly heard. And thus we might proceed, the general rule enunciated by Young, and illustrated by these experiments, being, that when any point of a string is plucked or struck, or, as Helmholtz adds, agitated with a bow, the harmonic which requires that point for a node vanishes from the general clang of the string.

§ 10. Mingling of Overtones with Fundamental. The Æolian Harp

You are now in a condition to estimate the influence which these higher vibrations must have upon the quality of the tone emitted by the string. The sounds which ring in your ears so plainly after the fundamental tone is quenched mingled with that note before it was extinguished. It seems strange that tones of such power could be so masked by the fundamental one that even the disciplined ear of a musician is unable to separate the one from the other. But Helmholtz has shown that this is due to want of practice and attention. The musician’s faculties were never exercised in this direction. There are numerous effects which the musician can distinguish, because his art demands the habit of distinguishing them. But it is no necessity of his art to resolve the clang of an instrument into its constituent tones. By attention, however, even the unaided ear can accomplish this, particularly if the mind be informed beforehand what the ear has to bend itself to find.

And this reminds me of an occurrence which took place in this room at the beginning of my acquaintance with Faraday. I wished to show him a peculiar action of an electro-magnet upon a crystal. Everything was arranged, when just before the magnet was excited he laid his hand upon my arm and asked, “What am I to look for?” Amid the assemblage of impressions connected with an experiment, even this prince of experimenters felt the advantage of having his attention directed to the special point to be illustrated. Such help is the more needed when we attempt to resolve into its constituent parts an effect so intimately blended as the composite tones of a clang. When we desire to isolate a particular tone, one way of helping the attention is to sound that tone feebly on a string of the proper length. Thus prepared, the ear glides more readily from the single tone to that of the same pitch in a composite clang, and detaches it more readily from its companions. In the experiments executed a moment ago, where our aim in each respective case was to bring out the higher tone of the string in all its power, we entirely extinguished its fundamental tone. It may, however, be enfeebled without being destroyed. I pluck this string at 33, and lay the feather lightly for a moment on the string at 50. The fundamental tone is thereby so much lowered that its octave can make itself plainly heard. By again touching the string at 50, the fundamental tone is lowered still more; so that now its first harmonic is more powerful than itself. You hear the sound of both, and you might have heard them in the first instance by a sufficient stretch of attention.

The harmonics of a string may be augmented or subdued within wide limits. They may, as we have seen, be masked by the fundamental tone, and they may also effectually mask it. A stroke with a hard body is favorable, while a stroke with a soft body is unfavorable to their development. They depend, moreover, on the promptness with which the body striking the string retreats after striking. Thus they are influenced by the weight and elasticity of the hammers in the pianoforte. They also depend upon the place at which the shock is imparted. When, for example, a string is struck in the centre, the harmonics are less powerful than when it is struck near one end.

Helmholtz, who is equally eminent as a mathematician and as an experimental philosopher, has calculated the theoretic intensity of the harmonics developed in various ways; that is to say, the actual vis viva or energy of the vibration, irrespective of its effects upon the ear. A single example given by him will suffice to illustrate this subject. Calling the intensity of the fundamental tone, in each case, 100, that of the second harmonic, when the string was simply pulled aside at a point one-seventh of its length from its end and then liberated, was found to be 56·1, or a little better than one-half. When the string was struck with the hammer of a pianoforte, whose contact with the string endured for three-sevenths of the period of vibration of the fundamental tone, the intensity of the same tone was 9. In this case the second harmonic was nearly quenched. When, however, the duration of contact was diminished to three-twentieths of the period of the fundamental, the intensity of the harmonic rose to 357; while, when the string was sharply struck with a very hard hammer, the intensity mounted to 505, or to more than quintuple that of the fundamental tone.39 Pianoforte manufacturers have found that the most pleasing tone is excited by the middle strings of their instruments, when the point against which the hammer strikes is from one-seventh to one-ninth of the length of the wire from its extremity.

Why should this be the case? Helmholtz has given the answer. Up to the tones which require these points as nodes the overtones all form chords with the fundamental; but the sixth and eighth overtones of the wire do not enter into such chords; they are dissonant tones, and hence the desirability of doing away with them. This is accomplished by making the point at which a node is required that on which the hammer falls. The possibility of the tone forming is thereby shut out, and its injurious effect is avoided.

The strings of the Æolian harp are divided into harmonic parts by a current of air passing over them. The instrument is usually placed in a window between the sash and frame, so as to leave no way open to the entrance of the air except over the strings. Sir Charles Wheatstone recommends the stretching of a first violin-string at the bottom of a door which does not closely fit. When the door is shut, the current of air entering beneath sets the string in vibration, and when a fire is in the room, the vibrations are so intense that a great variety of sounds are simultaneously produced.40 A gentleman in Basel once constructed with iron wires a large instrument which he called the weather-harp or giant-harp, and which, according to its maker, sounded as the weather changed. Its sounds were also said to be evoked by changes of terrestrial magnetism. Chladni pointed out the error of these notions, and reduced the action of the instrument to that of the wind upon its strings.

§ 11. Young’s Optical Illustrations

Finally, with regard to the vibrations of a wire, the experiments of Dr. Young, who was the first to employ optical methods in such experiments, must be mentioned. He allowed a sheet of sunlight to cross a pianoforte-wire, and obtained thus a brilliant dot. Striking the wire he caused it to vibrate, the dot described a luminous line like that produced by the whirling of a burning coal in the air, and the form of this line revealed the character of the vibration. It was rendered manifest by these experiments that the oscillations of the wire were not confined to a single plane, but that it described in its vibrations curves of greater or less complexity. Superposed upon the vibration of the whole string were partial vibrations, which revealed themselves as loops and sinuosities. Some of the lines observed by Dr. Young are given in Fig. 51. Every one of these figures corresponds to a distinct impression made by the wire upon the surrounding air. The form of the sonorous wave is affected by these superposed vibrations, and thus they influence the clang-tint or quality of the sound.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER III

The amount of motion communicated by a vibrating string to the air is too small to be perceived as sound, even at a small distance from the string.

When a broad surface vibrates in air, condensations and rarefactions are more readily formed than when the vibrating body is of small dimensions like a string. Hence, when strings are employed as sources of musical sounds, they are associated with surfaces of larger area which take up their vibrations, and transfer them to the surrounding air.

Thus the tone of a harp, a piano, a guitar, or a violin, depends mainly upon the sound-board of the instrument.

The following four laws regulate the vibrations of strings: The rate of vibrations is inversely proportional to the length; it is inversely proportional to the diameter; it is directly proportional to the square root of the stretching weight or tension; and it is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the string.

When strings of different diameters and densities are compared, the law is, that the rate of vibration is inversely proportional to the square root of the weight of the string.

When a stretched rope, or an India-rubber tube filled with sand, with one of its ends attached to a fixed object, receives a jerk at the other end, the protuberance raised upon the tube runs along it as a pulse to the fixed end, and, being there reflected, returns to the hand by which the jerk was imparted.

The time required for the pulse to travel from the hand to the fixed end of the tube and back is that required by the whole tube to execute a complete vibration.

When a series of pulses are sent in succession along the tube, the direct and reflected pulses meet, and by their coalescence divide the tube into a series of vibrating parts, called ventral segments, which are separated from each other by points of apparent rest called nodes.

The number of ventral segments is directly proportional to the rate of vibration at the free end of the tube.

The hand which produces these vibrations may move through less than an inch of space; while by the accumulation of its impulses the amplitude of the ventral segments may amount to several inches, or even to several feet.

If an India-rubber tube, fixed at both ends, be encircled at its centre by the finger and thumb, when either of its halves is pulled aside and liberated, both halves are thrown into a state of vibration.

If the tube be encircled at a point one-third, one-fourth, or one-fifth of its length from one of its ends, on pulling the shorter segment aside and liberating it, the longer segment divides itself into two, three, or four vibrating parts, separated from each other by nodes.

The number of vibrating segments depends upon the rate of vibration at the point encircled by the finger and thumb.

Here also the amplitude of vibration at the place encircled by the finger and thumb may not be more than a fraction of an inch, while the amplitude of the ventral segments may amount to several inches.

A musical string damped by a feather at a point one-half, one-third, one-fourth, one-fifth, etc., of its length from one of its ends, and having its shorter segment agitated, divides itself exactly like the India-rubber tube. Its division may be rendered apparent by placing little paper riders across it. Those placed at the ventral segments are thrown off, while those placed at the nodes retain their places.

The notes corresponding to the division of a string into its aliquot parts are called the harmonics of the string.

When a string vibrates as a whole, it usually divides at the same time into its aliquot parts. Smaller vibrations are superposed upon the larger; the tones corresponding to those smaller vibrations, and which we have agreed to call overtones, mingling at the same time with the fundamental tone of the string.

The addition of these overtones to the fundamental tone determines the timbre or quality of the sound, or, as we have agreed to call it, the clang-tint.

It is the addition of such overtones to fundamental tones of the same pitch which enables us to distinguish the sound of a clarionet from that of a flute, and the sound of a violin from both. Could the pure fundamental tones of these instruments be detached, they would be indistinguishable from each other; but the different admixture of overtones in the different instruments renders their clang-tints diverse, and therefore distinguishable.

Instead of the heavy India-rubber tube in the experiment above referred to, we may employ light silk strings, and, instead of the vibrating hand, we may employ vibrating tuning-forks, and cause the strings to swing as a whole, or to divide themselves into any number of ventral segments. Effects of great beauty are thus obtained, and by experiments of this character all the laws of vibrating strings may be demonstrated.

When a stretched string is plucked aside or agitated by a bow, all the overtones which require the agitated point for a node vanish from the clang of the string.

The point struck by the hammer of the piano is from one-seventh to one-ninth of the length of the string from its end: by striking this point, the notes which require it as a node cannot be produced, a source of dissonance being thus avoided.

CHAPTER IV

Vibrations of a Rod fixed at Both Ends: its Subdivisions and Corresponding Overtones—Vibrations of a Rod fixed at One End—The Kaleidophone—The Iron Fiddle and Musical Box—Vibrations of a Rod free at Both Ends—The Claque-bois and Glass Harmonica—Vibrations of a Tuning-Fork: its Subdivisions and Overtones—Vibrations of Square Plates—Chladni’s Discoveries—Wheatstone’s Analysis of the Vibrations of Plates—Chladni’s Figures—Vibrations of Disks and Bells—Experiments of Faraday and Strehlke

§ 1. Transverse Vibrations of a Rod fixed at Both Ends

OUR last chapter was devoted to the transverse vibrations of strings. This one I propose devoting to the transverse vibrations of rods, plates, and bells, commencing with the case of a rod fixed at both ends. Its modes of vibration are exactly those of a string. It vibrates as a whole, and can also divide itself into two, three, four, or more vibrating parts. But, for a reason to be immediately assigned, the laws which regulate the pitch of the successive notes are entirely different in the two cases. Thus, when a string divides into two equal parts, each of its halves vibrates with twice the rapidity of the whole; while, in the case of the rod, each of its halves vibrates with nearly three times the rapidity of the whole. With greater strictness, the ratio of the two rates of vibration is as 9 is to 25, or as the square of 3 to the square of 5. In Fig. 52, a a′, c c′, b b′, d d′, are sketched the first four modes of vibration of a rod fixed at both ends: the successive rates of vibration, in the four cases bear to each other the following relation:

the last row of figures being the squares of the odd numbers 3, 5, 7, 9.

In the case of a string, the vibrations are maintained by a tension externally applied; in the case of a rod, the vibrations are maintained by the elasticity of the rod itself. The modes of division are in both cases the same, but the forces brought into play are different, and hence also the successive rates of vibration.

§ 2. Transverse Vibrations of a Rod fixed at One End

Let us now pass on to the case of a rod fixed at one end and free at the other. Here also it is the elasticity of the material, and not any external tension, that sustains the vibrations. Approaching, as usual, sonorous vibrations through more grossly mechanical ones, I fix this long rod of iron, n o, Fig. 53, in a vise, draw it aside, and liberate it. To make its vibrations more evident, its shadow is thrown upon a screen. The rod oscillates as a whole to and fro, between the points p p′. But it is capable of other modes of vibration. Damping it at the point a, by holding it gently there between the finger and thumb, and striking it sharply between a and o, the rod divides into two vibrating parts, separated by a node as shown in Fig. 54. You see upon the screen a shadowy spindle between a and the vise below, and a shadowy fan above a, with a black node between both. The division may be effected without damping a, by merely imparting a sufficiently sharp shock to the rod between a and o. In this case, however, besides oscillating in parts, the rod oscillates as a whole, the partial oscillations being superposed upon the large one.

You notice, moreover, that the amplitude of the partial oscillations depends upon the promptness of the stroke. When the stroke is sluggish, the partial division is but feebly pronounced, the whole oscillation being most marked. But when the shock is sharp and prompt, the whole oscillation is feeble, and the partial oscillations are executed with vigor. If the vibrations of this rod were rapid enough to produce a musical sound, the oscillation of the rod as a whole would correspond to its fundamental tone, while the division of the rod into two vibrating parts would correspond to the first of its overtones. If, moreover, the rod vibrated as a whole and as a divided rod at the same time, the fundamental tone and the overtone would be heard simultaneously. By damping the proper point and imparting the proper shock, we can still further subdivide the rod, as shown in Fig. 55.

§ 3. Chladni’s Tonometer: the Iron Fiddle, Musical Box, and the Kaleidophone

And now let us shorten our rod, so as to bring its vibrations into proper relation to our ears. When it is about four inches long, it emits a low musical sound. When further shortened, the tone is higher; and, by continuing to shorten the rod, the speed of vibration is augmented, until finally the sound becomes painfully acute. These musical vibrations differ only in rapidity from the grosser oscillations which a moment ago appealed to the eye.

The increase in the rate of vibrations here observed is ruled by a definite law; the number of vibrations executed at a given time is inversely proportional to the square of the length of the vibrating rod. You hear the sound of this strip of brass, two inches long, as the fiddle-bow is passed over its end. Making the length of the strip one inch, the sound is the double octave of the last one; the rate of vibration is augmented four times. Thus, by doubling the length of the vibrating strip, we reduce its rate of vibration to one-fourth; by trebling the length, we reduce the rate of vibration to one-ninth; by quadrupling the length, we reduce the vibrations to one-sixteenth, and so on. It is plain that, by proceeding in this way, we should finally reach a length where the vibrations would be sufficiently slow to be counted. Or, it is plain that, beginning with a long strip whose vibrations could be counted, we might, by shortening, not only make the strip sound, but also determine the rates of vibration corresponding to its different tones. Supposing we start with a strip 36 inches long, which vibrates once in a second, the strip reduced to 12 inches would, according to the above law, execute 9 vibrations a second; reduced to 6 inches, it would execute 36, to 3 inches, 144; while, if reduced to 1 inch in length, it would execute 1,296 vibrations in a second. It is easy to fill the spaces between the lengths here given, and thus to determine the rate of vibration corresponding to any particular tone. This method was proposed and carried out by Chladni.

A musical instrument may be formed of short rods. Into this common wooden tray a number of pieces of stout iron wire of different lengths are fixed, being ranged in a semicircle. When the fiddle-bow is passed over the series, we obtain a succession of very pleasing notes. A competent performer could certainly extract very tolerable music from a sufficient number of these iron pins. The iron fiddle (violon de fer) is thus formed. The notes of the ordinary musical box are also produced by the vibrations of tongues of metal fixed at one end. Pins are fixed in a revolving, cylinder, the free ends of the tongues are lifted by these pins and then suddenly let go. The tongues vibrate, their length and strength being so arranged as to produce in each particular case the proper rapidity of vibration.

Sir Charles Wheatstone has devised a simple and ingenious optical method for the study of vibrating rods fixed at one end. Attaching light glass beads, silvered within, to the end of a metal rod, and allowing the light of a lamp or candle to fall upon the bead, he obtained a small spot intensely illuminated. When the rod vibrated, this spot described a brilliant line which showed the character of the vibration. A knitting-needle, fixed in a vise with a small bead stuck on to it by marine glue, answers perfectly as an illustration. In Wheatstone’s more complete instrument, which he calls a kaleidophone, the vibrating rods are firmly screwed into a massive stand. Extremely beautiful figures are obtained by this simple contrivance, some of which may now be projected on a magnified scale upon the screen before you.

Fixing the rod horizontally in the vise, a condensed beam is permitted to fall upon the silvered bead, a spot of sunlike brilliancy being thus obtained. Placing a lens in front of the bead, a bright image of the spot is thrown upon the screen, the needle is then drawn aside, and suddenly liberated. The spot describes a ribbon of light, at first straight, but speedily opening out into an ellipse, passing into a circle, and then again through a second ellipse back to a straight line. This is due to the fact that a rod held thus in a vise vibrates not only in the direction in which it is drawn aside, but also at right angles to this direction. The curve is due to the combination of two rectangular vibrations.41 While the rod is thus swinging as a whole, it may also divide itself into vibrating parts. By properly drawing a violin-bow across the needle, this serrated circle, Fig. 56, is obtained, a number of small undulations being superposed upon the large one. You moreover hear a musical tone, which you did not hear when the rod vibrated as a whole only; its oscillations, in fact, were then too slow to excite such a tone. The vibrations which produce these sinuosities, and which correspond to the first division of the rod, are executed with about 6-1/4 times the rapidity of the vibrations of the rod swinging as a whole. Again I draw the bow; the note rises in pitch, the serrations run more closely together, forming on the screen a luminous ripple more minute and, if possible, more beautiful than the last one, Fig. 57. Here we have the second division of the rod, the sinuosities of which correspond to 17-13/36 times its rate of vibration as a whole. Thus every change in the sound of the rod is accompanied by a change of the figure upon the screen.

The rate of vibration of the rod, as a whole, is to the rate corresponding to its first division nearly as the square of 2 is to the square of 5, or as 4:25. From the first division onward the rates of vibration are approximately proportional to the squares of the series of odd numbers 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc. Supposing the vibrations of the rod as a whole to number 36, then the vibrations corresponding to this and to its successive divisions would be expressed approximately by the following series of number’s:

36, 225, 625, 1225, 2025, etc.

In Fig. 58, a, b, c, d, e, are shown the modes of division corresponding to this series of numbers. You will not fail to observe that these overtones of a vibrating rod rise far more rapidly in pitch than the harmonics of a string.

Other forms of vibration may be obtained by smartly striking the rod with the finger near its fixed end. In fact, an almost infinite variety of luminous scrolls can be thus produced, the beauty of which may be inferred from the subjoined figures (see next page) first obtained by Sir C. Wheatstone. They may be produced by illuminating the bead with sunlight, or with the light of a lamp or candle. The scrolls, moreover, may be doubled by employing two candles instead of one. Two spots of light then appear, each of which describes its own luminous line when the knitting-needle is set in vibration. In a subsequent lecture we shall become acquainted with Wheatstone’s application of his method to the study of rectangular vibrations.

§ 4. Transverse Vibrations of a Rod free at Both Ends. The Claque-bois and Glass Harmonica

From a rod or bar fixed at one end, we will now pass to rods or bars free at both ends; for such an arrangement has also been employed in music. By a method afterward to be described, Chladni, the father of modern acoustics, determined experimentally the modes of vibration possible to such bars. The simplest mode of division in this case occurs when the rod is divided by two nodes into three vibrating parts. This division is easily illustrated by a flexible box ruler, six feet long. Holding it at about twelve inches from its two ends between the forefinger and thumb of each hand, and shaking it, or causing its centre to be struck, it vibrates, the middle segment forming a shadowy spindle, and the two ends forming fans. The shadow of the ruler on the screen renders the mode of vibration very evident. In this case the distance of each node from the end of the ruler is about one-fourth of the distance between the two nodes. In its second mode of vibration the rod or ruler is divided into four vibrating parts by three nodes. In Fig. 60, 1 and 2, these respective modes of division are shown. Looking at the edge of the ruler 1, the dotted lines cutting a a′, b b′, show the manner in which the segments bend up and down when the first division occurs, while c c′, d d′, show the mode of vibration corresponding to the second division. The deepest tone of a rod free at both ends is higher than the deepest tone of a rod fixed at one end in the proportion of 4:25. Beginning with the first two nodes, the rates of vibration of the free bar rise in the following proportion:

Here, also, we have a similarly rapid rise of pitch to that noticed in the last two cases.

For musical purposes the first division only of a free rod has been employed. When bars of wood of different lengths, widths, and depths, are strung along a cord which passes through the nodes, we have the claque-bois of the French, an instrument now before you, A B, Fig. 61. Supporting the cord at one end by a hook k and holding it at the other in the left hand, I run the hammer h along the series of bars, and produce an agreeable succession of musical tones. Instead of using the cord, the bars may rest at their nodes on cylinders of twisted straw; hence the name “straw-fiddle,” sometimes applied to this instrument. Chladni informs us that it is introduced as a play of bells (Glockenspiel) into Mozart’s opera of “Die Zauberflöte.” If, instead of bars of wood, we employ strips of glass, we have the glass harmonica.

§ 5. Vibrations of a Tuning-fork

From the vibrations of a bar free at both ends it is easy to pass to the vibrations of a tuning-fork, as analyzed by Chladni. Supposing a a, Fig. 62, to represent a straight steel bar, with the nodal points corresponding to its first mode of division marked by the transverse dots. Let the bar be bent to the form b b; the two nodal points still remain, but they have approached nearer to each other. The tone of the bent bar is also somewhat lower than that of the straight one. Passing through various stages of bending, c c, d d, we at length convert the bar into a tuning-fork e e, with parallel prongs; it still retains its two nodal points, which, however, are much closer together than when the bar was straight.

When such a fork sounds its deepest note, its free ends oscillate as in Fig. 63, where the prongs vibrate between the limits b and n, and f and m, and where p and q are the nodes. There is no division of a tuning-fork corresponding to the division of a straight bar by three nodes. In its second mode of division, which corresponds to the first overtone of the fork, we have a node on each prong, and two at the bottom. The principle of Young, referred to at page 155, extends also to tuning-forks. To free the fundamental tone from an overtone, you draw your bow across the fork at the place where the node is required to form the latter. In the third mode of division there are two nodes on each prong and one at the bottom; in the fourth division there are two nodes on each prong and two at the bottom; while in the fifth division there are three nodes on each prong and one at the bottom. The first overtone of the fork requires, according to Chladni, 6-1/4 times the number of vibrations of the fundamental tone.

It is easy to elicit the overtones of tuning-forks. Here, for example, is our old series, vibrating respectively 256, 320, 384, and 512 times in a second. In passing from the fundamental tone to the first overtone of each you notice that the interval is vastly greater than that between the fundamental tone and the first overtone of a stretched string. From the numbers just mentioned we pass at once to 1,600, 2,000, 2,400, and 3,200 vibrations a second. Chladni’s numbers, however, though approximately correct, are not always rigidly verified by experiment. A pair of forks, for example, may have their fundamental tones in perfect unison and their overtones discordant. Two such forks are now before you. When the fundamental tones of both are sounded, the unison is perfect; but when the first overtones of both are sounded, they are not in unison. You hear rapid “beats,” which grate upon the ear. By loading one of the forks with wax, the two overtones may be brought into unison; but now the fundamental tones produce loud beats when sounded together. This could not occur if the first overtone of each fork was produced by a number of vibrations exactly 6-1/4 times the rate of its fundamental. In a series of forks examined by Helmholtz, the number of vibrations of the first overtone varied from 5·6 to 6·6 times that of the fundamental.

Starting from the first overtone, and including it, the rates of vibration of the whole series of overtones are as the squares of the numbers 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. That is to say, in the time required by the first overtone to execute 9 vibrations, the second executes 25, the third 49, the fourth 81, and so on. Thus the overtones of the fork rise with far greater rapidity than those of a string. They also vanish more speedily, and hence adulterate to a less extent the fundamental tone by their admixture.

§ 6. Chladni’s Figures

The device of Chladni for rendering these sonorous vibrations visible has been of immense importance to the science of acoustics. Lichtenberg had made the experiment of scattering an electrified powder over an electrified resin-cake, the arrangement of the powder revealing the electric condition of the surface. This experiment suggested to Chladni the idea of rendering sonorous vibrations visible by means of sand strewed upon the surface of the vibrating body. Chladni’s own account of his discovery is of sufficient interest to justify its introduction here:

“As an admirer of music, the elements of which I had begun to learn rather late, that is, in my nineteenth year, I noticed that the science of acoustics was more neglected than most other portions of physics. This excited in me the desire to make good the defect, and by new discovery to render some service to this part of science. In 1785 I had observed that a plate of glass or metal gave different sounds when it was struck at different places, but I could nowhere find any information regarding the corresponding modes of vibration. At this time there appeared in the journals some notices of an instrument made in Italy by the Abbé Mazzochi, consisting of bells, to which one or two violin-bows were applied. This suggested to me the idea of employing a violin-bow to examine the vibrations of different sonorous bodies. When I applied the bow to a round plate of glass fixed at its middle it gave different sounds, which, compared with each other, were (as regards the number of their vibrations) equal to the squares of 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.; but the nature of the motions to which these sounds corresponded, and the means of producing each of them at will, were yet unknown to me. The experiments on the electric figures formed on a plate of resin, discovered and published by Lichtenberg, in the memoirs of the Royal Society of Göttingen, made me presume that the different vibratory motions of a sonorous plate might also present different appearances, if a little sand or some other similar substance were spread over the surface. On employing this means, the first figure that presented itself to my eyes upon the circular plate already mentioned resembled a star with ten or twelve rays, and the very acute sound, in the series alluded to, was that which agreed with the square of the number of diametrical lines.”

§ 7. Vibrations of Square Plates: Nodal Lines

I will now illustrate the experiments of Chladni, commencing with a square plate of glass held by a suitable clamp at its centre. The plate might be held with the finger and thumb, if they could only reach far enough. Scattering fine sand over the plate, the middle point of one of its edges is damped by touching it with the finger-nail, and a bow is drawn across the edge of the plate, near one of its corners. The sand is tossed away from certain parts of the surface, and collects along two nodal lines which divide the large square into four smaller ones, as in Fig. 64. This division of the plate corresponds to its deepest tone.

The signs + and - employed in these figures denote that the two squares on which they occur are always moving in opposite directions. When the squares marked + are above the average level of the plate those marked - are below it; and when those marked - are above the average level those marked + are below it. The nodal lines mark the boundaries of these opposing motions. They are the places of transition from the one motion to the other, and are therefore unaffected by either.

Scattering sand once more over its surface, I damp one of the corners of the plate, and excite it by drawing the bow across the middle of one of its sides. The sand dances over the surface, and finally ranges itself in two sharply-defined ridges along its diagonals, Fig. 65. The note here produced is a fifth above the last. Again damping two other points, and drawing the bow across the centre of the opposite side of the plate, we obtain a far shriller note than in either of the former cases, and the manner in which the plate vibrates to produce this note is represented in Fig. 66.