Æsthetic as science of expression and general linguistic

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX

The first attempt at a history of Æsthetic is the work of J. Roller (see above, p. 248) mentioned by Zimmermann (Gesch. d. Ästh. pref., p. v) as being so exceedingly rare that he had never been able to see a copy of the book. We ourselves have had the good fortune to find the book in the Royal Library of Munich in Bavaria, by the help of our friend Dr. Arturo Farinelli of Innsbruck University, and to obtain the loan of it. It bears the title Entwurf | zur | Geschichte und Literatur | der Æsthetik | von Baumgarten auf die | neueste Zeit. | Herausgegeben | von | J. Koller. | Regensburg | in der Montag und Weissischen Buchhandlung | 1799 (pp. viii-107, small 8vo); in the preface the author declares his intention of supplying young men attending Lectures on the Criticism of Taste and the Theory of the Fine Arts in the German Universities with a "lucid summary of the origin and later progress of these studies," premising that he will treat of general theories only and that his judgements are frequently derived from reviews in literary periodicals. The introduction (§§ 1-7) treats of æsthetic theories from antiquity down to the beginning of the eighteenth century; Koller observes that "the names and form of a general Theory of Fine Art and Criticism of Taste were unknown to the ancients, whose imperfect ethical theory prevented their producing anything in this field." He dedicates § 5 to the Italians, "who have produced little in theory"; indeed the only Italian books mentioned are the Entusiasmo of Bettinelli and the small work of Jagemann, Saggio di buon gusto nelle belle arti ove si spiegano gli elementi dell' estetica, di Fr. Gaud. Jagemann, Regente agostiniano, In Firenze, MDCCLXXI, Presso Luigi Bastianelli e compagni; 60 pp. (concerning this, see B. Croce, Problemi di estetica, pp. 387-390). The section on the History and Literature of Æsthetic begins with the oft-quoted passage from Bülffinger ("Vellem existerent, etc.") and passes at once to Baumgarten: "the theoretical epoch owes its existence undeniably to Baumgarten; to him belongs the inalienable merit of having first conceived an Æsthetic founded on principles of reason and wholly developed, and of having tried to put it into practice by the means offered him by his own philosophy." Immediately after this, Meier is mentioned, followed by the titles, accompanied by brief extracts and remarks—a sort of catalogue raisonné—of many German books on Æsthetic from those of K. W. Müller (1759) to one by Ramier (1799), mixed with various French and English writings under the dates of their German translations. Special emphasis is laid on Kant (pp. 64-74), with the remark that, prior to the appearance of the Critique of Judgment, æstheticians were divided into sceptics, dogmatics and empiricists: the most powerful intellects of the nation inclined towards empiricism, so much so that had Kant himself "been asked by what literature he had been most strongly influenced in the development of his own thought, he would certainly have named the acute empirical writers of England, France and Germany"; but "by no pre-Kantian method had it been possible to establish an agreement (eine Einhelligkeit) between men upon matters of taste." The last pages call attention to the revival of interest in æsthetic studies, which nobody would now dare call a waste of time as in former days. "May Jacobi, Schiller and Mehmel soon enrich literature by publication of their theories!" (p. 104).

The rarity of Koller's book has led us to notice it at some length. Apart from this the first general history of Æsthetic worthy the name is that written by Robert Zimmermann, Geschichte der Ästhetik als philosophischer Wissenschaft, Vienna, 1858. It is divided into four books: "the first of these contains the history of philosophical concepts concerning the beautiful and art from the Greeks down to the constitution of Æsthetic as a philosophical science through the labours of Baumgarten"; the second runs from Baumgarten down to the reform of Æsthetic brought about by the Critique of Judgment; the third, from Kant to the Æsthetic of idealism; the fourth, from the beginnings of idealistic Æsthetic down to the author's own day (1798-1858). The work is on Herbartian lines, and is remarkable for solid research and lucid exposition, although the erroneous point of view and neglect of all æsthetic movement other than Græco-Roman or German are grave defects; besides, it is now sixty years out of date.

Less solid and more compilatory in nature, whilst retaining all the defects of the foregoing, is the history by Max Schasler, Kritische Geschichte der Ästhetik, Berlin, 1872, divided into three books treating of ancient Æsthetic and that of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The author belongs to the Hegelian school and conceives his history as a propædeutic to theory, "in order, that is, to attain a supreme principle for the construction of a new system"; he schematizes the material of facts for each period into three grades of Æsthetic of sensation (Empfindungsurtheil,) of intellect (Verstandsurtheil) and of reason (Vernunfturtheil.)

English literature has Bernard Bosanquet's History of Æsthetics, London, 1892; a sober and well-arranged work, written from an eclectic point of view between the Æsthetic of content and the Æsthetic of form. The author, however, is wrong in believing he has passed over "no writer of the first rank"; he has passed over not only writers but some important movements of ideas, and in general he shows insufficient knowledge of the literature of the Latin races. Another general history of Æsthetic in English is the first volume of The Philosophy of the Beautiful, being Outlines of the History of Æsthetics, by William Knight, London, Murray, 1895: it consists mainly of a rich collection of extracts and abridgements of ancient and modern books treating of Æsthetic. In this respect the most noteworthy chapters are those on Holland, Great Britain and America (10-13); the second volume, published in 1898, has in an appendix, pp. 251-281, notices upon Æsthetic in Russia and Denmark. Another recent publication is George Saintsbury's A History of Criticism and Literary Taste in Europe from the Earliest Times to the Present Day; vol. i., Edinburgh and London, 1900, concerning classical and mediæval criticism; vol. ii., 1902, criticism from the Renaissance to end of the eighteenth century: vol. iii., 1904, modern criticism. The writer of this History, equally skilled in literature and innocent of philosophy, has thought it possible to exclude æsthetic science in the strict sense, "the more transcendental Æsthetic, those ambitious theories of Beauty and artistic pleasure in general which seem so noble and fascinating until we discover them to be but cloud-appearances of Juno," and to limit his treatise to "lofty Rhetoric and Poetic, to the theory and practice of Criticism and literary taste" (book i. ch. I). Thus is produced a book instructive in many ways but wholly deficient in method and definite object. What is lofty Rhetoric and Poetic, the theory of Criticism and literary taste, if not Æsthetic pure and simple? how can the history of these be composed without due notice of metaphysical Æsthetic and other manifestations whose interaction and development are the fabric of history itself? Perhaps Saintsbury hoped to be able to write a History of Criticism as distinct from that of Æsthetic; if that be the case, he has been unsuccessful in writing either one or the other. Cf. La Critica, ii. (1904), pp. 59-63.

The generosity of the Hungarian Academy of Science has enabled us to handle the History of Æsthetic (Az Æsthetika története) of Bela Janosi, Budapesth, 1899-1901, in three volumes; the first volume treats the Æsthetic of Greece; the second, of Æsthetic from the Middle Ages to Baumgarten; the third, from Baumgarten to the present day. For us it is a book sealed with seven seals, save for reviews which have appeared in the Deutsche Litteraturzeitung of Berlin, August 25, 1900, July 12, 1902, and May 2, 1903.

Amongst Latin countries, France has no special history of Æsthetic, for this title cannot be given to the portion of the second volume (pp. 311-570) of the work by Ch. Levêque, La Science du beau (Paris, 1862), under the heading Examen des principaux systèmes d'esthétique anciens et modernes, where eight chapters are devoted to an exposition of the theories of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus and St. Augustine, Hutcheson, André and Baumgarten, Reid, Kant, Schelling and Hegel. Spain, on the other hand, possesses the work of Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo, Historia de las idéas estéticas en España, 2nd ed., Madrid, 1890-1901 (5 vols., variously distributed amongst the 1st ed., 1883-1891, and the 2nd), which is not restricted, as the title suggests, to Spain alone or to Æsthetic alone but, as the author observes in his preface (i. pp. xx-xxi), includes the metaphysical disquisitions on the beautiful, the speculations of mystics on the beauty of God and on love; the theories of art scattered through the pages of philosophers; the æsthetic considerations found in treatises upon individual arts (Poetics and Rhetoric, works on painting, architecture, etc.); and, finally, ideas enunciated by artists concerning their own particular arts. This work is of capital importance on everything to do with Spanish authors, and also in its general part contains good treatments of matters generally passed over by historians. Menendez y Pelayo inclines to metaphysical idealism, yet seems not disinclined to welcome elements from other systems, even empirical theories: in our opinion this vagueness has an unfortunate effect on the work as a whole. Some years ago Professor V. Spinazzola announced the forthcoming publication of a course of lectures given by Francesco de Sanctis in Naples in 1845 on Storia della critica da Aristotele ad Hegel. For the history of Æsthetic in Italy cf. Alfredo Rolla, Storia delle idee estetiche in Italia, Turin, 1904; on which see Croce, Problemi di estetica, pp. 401-415.

We need take no notice of the historical remarks or chapters that generally stand at the beginning of treatises on Æsthetic; the most important occur in the volumes of Solger, Hegel and Schleiermacher. A general history of Æsthetic, from the rigorous point of view of the principle of Expression, has not been attempted before the present work.

For the bibliography down to the end of the eighteenth century, Sulzer's Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste, 2nd ed., with additions by von Blankenburg, Leipzig, 1792, in four volumes, is practically complete and is an inexhaustible mine of information. For the nineteenth century much material is collected by C. Mills Gayley and Fred Newton Scott in An Introduction to the Methods and Materials of Literary Criticism. The Bases in Æsthetics and Poetics, Boston, 1899. Besides Sulzer, we may mention æsthetic dictionaries by Gruber, Wörterbuch z. Behuf d. Ästh. d. schönen Künste, Weimar, 1810: Jeithles, Ästhetisches Lexikon, vol. i. A-K, Vienna, 1835: Hebenstreit, Encyklopädie d. Ästhetik, 2nd ed., Vienna, 1848.

The following notes contain for the convenience of the student several books which the author has not been able to see.

I. Concerning ancient Æsthetic no better or more comprehensive work can be found than the Geschichte der Theorie der Kunst bei den Alten, by Ed. Müller, Breslau, 1831-1837, 2 vols. For inquiries concerning the Beautiful special reference should be made to Julius Walter, Die Geschichte der Ästhetik im Alterthum ihren begrifflichen Entwicklung nach, Leipzig, 1893. See also Em. Egger, Essai sur l'histoire de la critique chez les Grecs, 2nd ed., Paris, 1886: Zimmermann, Bk. I.: Bosanquet, ch. ii.-v. and Saintsbury, vol. i.

Of the innumerable special monographs: for Plato's Æsthetic see Arn. Ruge, Die platonische Ästhetik, Halle, 1832: for Aristotle's, Döring, Die Kunstlehre des Aristoteles, Jena, 1876: C. Bénard, L'Esthétique d'Aristote et de ses successeurs, Paris, 1890: S. H. Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, 3rd ed., London, 1902. For Plotinus, E. Vacherot, Histoire critique de l'école d'Alexandrie, Paris, 1846: E. Brenning, Die Lehre vom Schönen bei Plotin im Zusammenhang seines Systems dargestellt, Göttingen, 1864. On the Ars Poetica of Horace, A. Viola, L' arte poetica di Orazio nella critica italiana e straniera, 2 vols. Naples, 1901-1907.

For the history of ancient Psychology see H. Siebeck, Geschichte der Psychologie, 1880; A. E. Chaignet, Histoire de la psychologie des Grecs, Paris, 1887; L. Ambrosi, La psicologia dell' immaginazione nella storia della filosofia, Rome, 1898. For the history of the philosophy of language see H. Steinthal, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Römern mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Logik, 2nd ed. Berlin, 1890-1891, 2 vols.

II. For the æsthetic ideas of St. Augustine and early Christian authors see Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit. pp. 193-266. For Thomas Aquinas, L. Taparelli, Delle ragioni del bello seconde la dottrina di san Tommaso d'Aquino (in Civiltà cattolica for 1859-1860): P. Vallet, L'Idée du beau dans la philosophie de St. Thomas d'Aquin, 1883: M. de Wulf, Études historiques sur l'esthétique de St. Thomas, Louvain, 1896.

For the literary doctrines of the Middle Ages see D. Comparetti, Virgilio nel medio evo, 2nd ed. Florence, 1893, vol. i., and G. Saintsbury, op. cit., vol. i. pp. 369-486. For the early Renaissance see K. Vossler, Poetische Theorien in d. italien. Frührenaissance, Berlin, 1900. For the Poetics of the high Renaissance see J. E. Spingarn, History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, with special reference to the influence of Italy, New York, 1899 (Italian trans. with corrections and additions, Bari, 1905). See also F. de Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana, Naples, 1870, passim.

For the traditions of Platonic and neo-Platonic ideas in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, for best and fullest information see Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit., vol. i. part ii. and vol. ii. For Italian treatises on beauty and love see Michele Rosi, Saggi sui trattati d' amore del cinquecento, Recanati, 1899, and F. Flamini, Il cinquecento, Milan, Vallardi, N.D., ch. iv. pp. 378-381. For Tasso see Alfredo Giannini, Il "Minturno" di T. Tasso, Ariano, 1899: see also E. Proto in Rass. crit. lett. ital. vi. (Naples, 1901) pp. 127-145. For Leone Ebreo see Edm. Solmi, Benedetto Spinoza e L. E., studio su una fonte italiana dimenticata dello spinozismo, Modena, 1903: cf. G. Gentile in Critica, ii. pp. 313-319.

On J. C. Scaliger see Eug. Lintilhac, Un Coup d'État dans la république des lettres: Jules César Scaliger, fondateur du classicisme cent ans avant Boileau (in the Nouv. Revue, 1890, vol. lxiv. pp. 333-346, 528-547). On Fracastoro, Giuseppe Rossi, Girolamo Fracastoro in relazione all' aristotelismo e alla scienza nel Rinascimento, Pisa, 1893. On Castelvetro, Ant. Fusco, La poetica di Ludovico Castelvetro, Naples, 1904. On Patrizzi, Oddone Zenatti, Fr. Patrizzi, Orazio Ariosto, e Torquato Tasso, etc. (Verona, per le nozze Morpurgo-Franchetti, N.D.).

III. For this period of ferment see H. von Stein, Die Entstehung der neueren Ästhetik, Stuttgart, 1886: K. Borinski, Die Poetik der Renaissance und die Anfänge der litterarischen Kritik in Deutschland, Berlin, 1886 (esp. the last chapter): also same author's Baltasar Gracian und die Hofliteratur in Deutschland, Halle a. S., 1894, B. Croce, I trattatisti italiani del Concettismo e B. Gracian, Naples, 1899 (in Atti dell' Acc. Pont. vol. xxix., reprinted in Problemi di estetica, pp. 309-345), Elizabethan Critical Essays, edited with an introduction by G. Gregory Smith, Oxford, 1904, 2 vols.: Critical Essays of the Seventeenth Century, edited by J. E. Spingam, Oxford, 1908, 2 vols.: Leone Donati, J. J. Bodmer und die italienische Litteratur (in the vol. J. J. Bodmer, Denkschrift z. C. C. Geburtstag, Zürich, 1900, pp. 241-312): see also Probl. di estetica, pp. 371-380.

On Bacon see K. Fischer, Franz Baco von Verulam, Leipzig, 1856 (2nd ed. 1875), cf. P. Jacquinet, Fr. Baconis in re litteraria iudicia, Paris, 1863. On Gravina, Em. Reich, G. V. Gravina als Ästhetiker (in the Trans, of the Viennese Academy, vol. cxx. 1890): B. Croce, Di alcuni giudizi sul Gravina considerate come estetico, Florence, 1901 (in Miscellanea d' Ancona, pp. 456-464), reprinted in Probl. di est. pp. 360-370. On Du Bos, Morel,Étude sur l'abbé du Bos, Paris, 1849: P. Petent, J. B. Dubos, Tramelan, 1902. On Bouhours, Doncieux, Un jésuite homme de lettres au XVII^e siècle, Paris, 1886. On the Bouhours-Orsi controversy, F. Fottano, Una polemica nel settecento, in Ricerche letterarie, Leghorn, 1897, pp. 313-332: A. Boeri, Una contesa letteraria franco-italiana nel secolo XVIII, Palermo, 1900 (cf. Giorn. stor. lett. ital. xxxvi. pp. 255-256): B. Croce, Varietà di storia dell' estetica, §§ 1-2, in Rass. crit. lett. ital. cit., vi. 1901, pp. 115-126, reprinted in Probl. di est. pp. 346-359.

IV. On Cartesianism in literature see É. Krantz, L'Esthétique de Descartes étudiée dans les rapports de la doctrine cartésienne avec la littérature classique française au XVIII^e siècle, Paris, 1882; see also the chapter on André, pp. 311-341, and the introduction by V. Cousin to the œuvres philosophiques du p. André, Paris, 1843: on Boileau, Borinski, Poetik d. Renaissance, c. 6, pp. 314-329; J. Brunetière, L'Esthétique de B. in Revue des Deux Mondes, June 1, 1899.

On the English intellectualist æstheticians see Zimmermann, op. cit. pp. 273-301; also von Stein, op. cit. pp. 185-216. On Shaftesbury and Hutcheson see esp. Gid. Spicker, Die Philosophie d. Grafen v. Shaftesbury, Freiburg i. B., 1872, part iv. on art and literature, pp. 196-233: T. Fowler, S. and Hutcheson, London, 1882: William Robert Scott, Francis Hutcheson, his life, teaching and position in the history of philosophy, Cambridge, 1900.

On Leibniz, Baumgarten and contemporary German writers see Th. W. Danzel, Gottsched und seine Zeit, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1855: H. G. Meyer, Leibnitz und Baumgarten als Begründer der deutschen Ästhetik, Inaugural Dissertation, Halle, 1874: Joh. Schmidt, L. und B., Halle, 1875: Ém. Grucker, Histoire des doctrines littéraires et esthétiques en Allemagne (from Opitz to the Swiss writers), Paris, 1883: Fr. Braitmaier, Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den Diskursen der Maler his auf Lessing, Frauenfeld, 1888-1889. In the last-named book the first part treats of the beginning of Poetics and criticism in Germany, considered in their relation to the doctrines of classical, French and English writers: the second part treats of an attempt to found an æsthetic philosophy and theory of poetry upon a basis of Leibnitian-Wolffian psychology: which includes a long discussion of Baumgarten and quotations from two dissertations, Raabe's A. G. Baumgarten, æstheticæ in disciplinæ formam parens et auctor, and Prieger's Anregung u. metaphysische Grundlage d. Ästh. von A. G. Baumgarten, 1875 (cf. vol. ii. p. 2).

V. On Vico as æsthetician see B. Zumbini, Sopra alcuni principî di critica letteraria di G. B. V. (reprinted in Studî di letter. italiana, Florence, 1894, pp. 257-268): B. Croce, G. B. V. primo scopritore della scienza estetica, Naples, 1901 (reprinted from Flegrea. April 1901), incorporated in the present volume as has been mentioned already: see also G. Gentile in Rass. crit. della lett. ital., cit., vi. pp. 254-265: E. Bertana, in Giorn. stor. lett. ital. xxxviii. pp. 449-451: A. Martinazzoli, Intorno alle dottrine vichiane di ragion poetica, in Riv. di filos. e sc. aff. of Bologna, July 1902: also the reply of B. Croce, ibid., August 1902: Giovanni Rossi, Il pensiero di G. B. V. intorno alla natura della lingua e all' ufficio dette lettere, Salerno, 1901. The important position occupied by Vico in respect to Æsthetic had been remarked earlier by C. Marini, G. B. V. al cospetto del secolo XIX, Naples, 1852, c. 7, § 10. For the influence exercised by Vico, B. Croce, Per la storia della critica e storiografia letteraria, Naples, 1903 (in Atti d. Acc. Pont., vol. xxxiii.), pp. 7-8, 26-28 (reprinted in Probl. di est. pp. 423-425), and G. A. Borgese, Storia della critica romantica in Italia, Naples, 1905, passim.

On Vico's thought in general, as well as on his Æsthetic, see B. Croce, La filosofia di Giambattista Vico, Bari, 1911: English translation by R. G. Collingwood, 1913. The copious literature concerning Vico is given by B. Croce in Bibliografia vichiana, Naples, 1904 (reprinted from Atti dell' Acad. Pont. vol. xxxiv.), and Supplemento, ibid. 1907, and Secondo Supplemento, 1910 (Atti cit., vols, xxxvii. and xli.).

VI. On the literary doctrines of Conti see G. Brognoligo, L' opera letteraria di A. Conti, in Arch. veneto, 1894, vol. i. pp. 152-209: on Cesarotti, Vitt. Alemanni, Un filosofo delle lettere, vol. i. Turin, 1894: on Pagano, B. Croce, Varietà di storia dell' estetica, § 3; Di alcuni estetici italiani della seconda metà del secolo XVIII, in Rass. crit. cit. vii. 1902, pp. 1-17 (reprinted in Probl. di est. pp. 381-450).

On the German æstheticians, in addition to the various general histories already quoted, see R. Sommer, Grundzüge einer Geschichte der deutschen Psychologie u. Ästhetik von Wolff-Baumgarten his Kant-Schiller, Würzburg, 1892. Greatly inferior is M. Dessoir, Geschichte d. neueren deutschen Psychologie, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897 (the first half only is published, down to Kant exclusive).

On Sulzer, Braitmaier, op. cit. ii. pp. 55-71: on Mendelssohn, ibid. pp. 72-279: for Elias Schlegel, op. cit. i. p. 249 seqq.; on Mendelssohn see also Th. Wilh. Danzel, Gesammelte Aufsätze, Leipzig, Jahn, 1855, pp. 85-98: Kannegiesser, Stellung Mendelssohns in d. Gesch. d. Ästh., 1868. On Riedel, K. F. Wize, F. J. Riedel u. seine Ästhetik, Diss., Berlin, 1907. On Herder, Ch. Joiet, H. et la renaissance littéraire en Allemagne au XVIII^e siècle, Paris, 1875: R. Haym, H. nach seinem Leben u. seinen Werken, 2 vols., Berlin, 1880: G. Jacobi, H.'s und Kant's Ästh., Leipzig, 1907. For the ideas of Hamann and Herder concerning the origins of poetry see Croce in Critica, ix. (1911), pp. 469-472. On the history of Linguistic, see Th. Benfey, Geschichte d. Sprachwissenschaft in Deutschland, Munich, 1869, introd.: H. Steinthal, Der Ursprung der Sprache im Zusammenhange mit d. letzen Fragen alles Wissens, eine Darstellung, Kritik und Fortentwicklung der vorzüglichsten Ansichten, 4th ed., Berlin, 1888.

VII. On Batteux see E. v. Danckelmann, Charles Batteux, sein Leben u. sein ästhetisches Lehrgebäude, Rostock, 1902. On Hogarth, Burke and Home, Zimmermann, op. cit. pp. 223-273; Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 202-210. On Home esp. J. Wohlgemüth, H. Home's Ästhetik, Rostock, 1894: W. Neumann, Die Bedeutung Homes für d. Ästhetik, u. sein Einflüss auf d. deutschen Ästhetik, Halle, 1894. On Hemsterhuis, Ém. Grucker, François H., sa vie et ses oeuvres, Paris, 1866.

On Winckelmann, Goethe, W. u. sein Jahrhundert, 1805 (in Werke, ed. Goedecke, vol. xxxi.): C. Justi, W. u. seine Zeitgenossen, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1898. A criticism of Winckelmann's theory, by H. Hettner, appeared in the Revue Moderne, 1866. On Mengs, Zimmermann, op. cit. pp. 338-355. On Lessing, Th. Wilh. Danzel, G. E. Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke, Leipzig, 1849-1853: Kuno Fischer, L. als Reformater d. deutschen Litteratur, Stuttgart, 1881: Ém. Grucker, Lessing, Paris, 1891: Erich Schmidt, Lessing, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1899: K. Borinski, Lessing, Berlin, 1900.

On Spalletti see B. Croce, Var., cit., § 3 (Probl. d. est. pp. 392-398). On Meier, Hirth and Goethe, Danzel, Goethe und die Weimarsche Kunstfreunde in ihrem Verhältniss z. Winckelmann, in Gesamm. Aufs. pp. 118-145. On Goethe's Æsthetic esp. see Wilh. Bode, Goethes Ästhetik, Berlin, 1901.

VIII. Critical expositions of Kant's Æsthetic are very numerous even in Italy: for example, O. Colecchi, Questioni filosofiche, Naples, 1843, vol. iii.; C. Cantoni, E. Kant, Milan, 1884, vol. iii. In German, esp. H. Cohen, Kants Begründung der Ästhetik, Berlin, 1889; also an important chapter in Sommer, op. cit. pp. 337-352; a sufficient representative of a host of others is the elaborate work of Victor Basch, Essai critique sur l'esthétique de Kant, Paris, 1896. See also, on an Italian trans. of the Kr. d. Urth., B. Croce in Critica, v. (1907), pp. 160-164.

For Kant's lectures and the historical antecedents of his Critique of Judgment (besides the dissertations of H. Falkenheim, Die Entstehung der kantischen Ästhetik, Heidelberg, 1890, and Rich. Grundmann, Die Entwickel d. Ästh. Kants, Leipzig, 1893) see the exhaustive work of Otto Schlapp, Kant's Lehre vom Genie und die Entstehung d. Kritik d. Urtheilskraft, Göttingen, 1901.

IX. For the whole of this period, beside the general histories already quoted which treat of it in great detail, see Th. Wilh. Danzel, Über den gegenwärtigen Zustand d. Philosophie d. Kunst u. ihre nächste Aufgabe (in the Zeitschr. f. Phil, of Fichte, 1844-1845, and reprinted in Gesammelte Aufsätze, pp. 1-84): this treats of Kant, Schiller, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel and, more particularly, of Solger, pp. 51-84: Herm. Lotze, Geschichte der Ästhetik in Deutschland, Munich, 1868 (in the coll. "History of the Sciences in Germany," published by the Royal Academy of Sciences of Munich in Bavaria): first book, history of general points of view from Baumgarten to the Herbartian school: second book, history of individual fundamental æsthetic concepts: third book, contributions to the history of the theory of the arts: Ed. v. Hartmann, Die deutsche Ästhetik s. Kant (first part, historico-critical), Berlin, 1886, divided into two books. The first book discusses the doctrine of the chief æstheticians and, after an introduction on the foundation of philosophical æsthetic by Kant, treats of the Æsthetic of the content, divided into that of abstract idealism (Schelling, Schopenhauer, Solger, Krause, Weisse, Lotze); of concrete idealism (Hegel, Trahndorff, Schleiermacher, Deutinger, Oersted, Vischer, Zeising, Carrière, Schasler); of the Æsthetic of feeling (Kirchmann, Wiener, Horwicz); the Æsthetic of form, subdivided into abstract formalism (Herbart, Zimmermann), and concrete formalism (Köstlin, Siebeck). The second book is concerned with the more important special problems.

On the Æsthetic of Schiller specially see, amongst numerous monographs, Danzel, Schillers Briefwechsel mit Körner, in Ges. Aufs. pp. 227-244: G. Zimmermann, Versuch einer schillerschen Ästhetik, Leipzig, 1889: F. Montargis, L'Esthétique de Schiller, Paris, 1890: the chapter in Sommer, op. cit. pp. 365-432: V. Basch, La Poétique de Schiller, Paris, 1901.

On the Æsthetic of Romanticism, R. Haym, Die romantische Schule: ein Beitrag z. Geschichte d. deutschen Geistes, Berlin, 1870 (cf. on Tieck, book i.; on Novalis, book iii.: for criticism of the two Schlegels, bk. ii. and bk. iii. ch. 5): N. M. Pichtos, Die Ästhetik Aug. W. v. Schlegel in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung, Berlin, 1893. On the Æsthetic of Fichte, G. Tempel, Fichtes Stellung z. Kunst, Metz, 1901.

On the Æsthetic of Hegel, Danzel, Über d. Ästhetik der hegelschen Philosophie, Hamburg, 1844: R. Haym, Hegel u. seine Zeit, Berlin, 1857, pp. 433-443: J. S. Kedney, Hegel's Æsthetics: a critical exposition, Chicago, 1885: Kuno Fischer, Hegels Leben u. Werke, Heidelberg, 1898-1901, chs. 38-42, pp. 811-947: J. Kohn, Hegels Ästhetik in Zeitschrift für Philosophie, 1902, vol. 120, fasc. ii.: see also B. Croce, Cio che è vivo e cio che è morto della filosofia di Hegel, Bari, 1907, ch. 6; Engl. tr. by D. Ainslie, 1915.

X. For the Æsthetic of Schopenhauer, Fr. Sommerlad, Darstellung u. Kritik d. ästh. Grundanschauungen Schopenhauers, Diss., Giessen, 1895: Ed. v. Mayer, Schopenhauers Ästhetik u. ihr Verhältniss z. d. ästh. Lehren Kants u. Schellings, Halle, 1897: Ett. Zoccoli, L' estetica di A. Sch.: propedeutica all' estetica Wagneriana, Milan, 1901: G. Chialvo, L' estetica di A. Sch., saggio esplicativo-critico, Rome, 1905.

For the Æsthetic of Herbart, beside Zimmermann, op. cit. pp. 754-804, see O. Hostinsky, Herbarts Ästhetik in ihrer grundlegenden Theilen quellenmässig dargestellt u. erläutert, Hamburg-Leipzig, 1891.

XI. Of the Æsthetic of Schleiermacher, the fullest treatment is given by Zimmermann, pp. 609-634, and von Hartmann, pp. 156-169.

XII. For the history of the theory of Language, beside Benfey, op. cit. introd., see Max. Leop. Loewe, Historiæ criticæ grammatices universalis seu philosophicæ lineamenta, Dresden, 1839: A. F. Pott, W. v. Humboldt und die Sprachwissenschaft, introd. to the reprint of Humboldt's Verschiedenheit d. menschl. Sprachbaues (2nd ed., Berlin, 1880, vol. i.).

On Humboldt see esp. Steinthal, Der Ursprung der Sprache, pp. 59-81, and Pott's introd. cit., Wilh. v. Humboldt u. die Sprachwissenschaft.

XIII. For this period, treated with unnecessary fulness, see von Hartmann, op. cit. bk. i.: more concisely by Menendez y Pelayo, vol. iv. (1st ed.), part i. chs. 6-8.

For the doctrine of the modifications of beauty see Zimmermann, op. cit. pp. 715-744: Schasler, op. cit. §§ 517-546: Bosanquet, op. cit. ch. 14, pp. 393-440: in greater detail, v. Hartmann, bk. ii. part i. pp. 363-461.

For the history of the Sublime see also F. Unruh, Der Begriff des Erhabenen seit Kant, Königsberg, 1898. For Humour see B. Croce, Dei varî significanti della parola umorismo e del suo uso nella critica letteraria, in the Journal of Comparative Literature of New York, 1903, fasc. iii. (reprinted in Probl. di est. pp. 275-286) F. Baldensperger, Les Définitions de l'humour, in Études; d'hist. litt. Paris, 1907. For the history of the concept of the Graceful, F. Torraca, La grazia secondo il Castiglione e secondo lo Spencer (in Morandi, Antol. della critica lett. ital. 2nd ed., Città di Castello, 1885, pp. 440-444): F. Braitmaier, op. cit. ii. pp. 166-167.

XIV. For the history of Æsthetic in France during the nineteenth century there is nothing so good as Menendez y Pelayo, vol. iii. part ii. chs. 3-9; ibid. chs. 1-2 give full information concerning Æsthetic in England.

For Æsthetic in Italy in the first half of the nineteenth century, Karl Werner, Idealistische Theorien des Schönen in d. italienischen Philosophie des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, Vienna, 1884 (from Trans, of the Imperial and Royal Viennese Academy). On Rosmini see esp. P. Bellezza, Antonio Rosmini e la grande questione letteraria del secolo XIX (in the collection Per Antonio Rosmini nel primo centenario, Milan, 1897, vol. i. pp. 364-385). On Gioberti, Ad. Faggi, Vinc. Gioberti esteta e letterato, Palermo, 1901 (from the Atti della R. Accad. di Palermo, s. iii. vol. vi.). On Delfico, G. Gentile, Dal Gcnovesi al Galluppi, Naples, 1903, ch. ii. On Leopardi, E. Bertana in Giorn. stor. lett. ital. xli. pp. 193-283; R. Giani, L'estetica nei pensieri di G. Leopardi, Turin, 1904 (cf. G. Gentile in Critica, ii. pp. 144-147). See also a book quoted by A. Rolla and B. Croce, loc. cit., containing a catalogue of Italian books on Æsthetic of the nineteenth century (Probl. di est. pp. 401-415).

On the theories of the Italian Romanticists, F. De Sanctis, La poetica del Manzoni, in Scritti varî, ed. Croce, i. pp. 23-45; and the same author's La letteratura italiana nel secolo XIX, ed. Croce, Naples, 1897, on Tommaseo, pp. 233-243: on Cantù, pp. 244-273: on Berchet, pp. 479-493: on Mazzini, pp. 424-441. On Mazzini esp. F. Ricitari, Concetto dell' arte e della critica letteraria nella mente di G. Mazzini, Catania, 1896. For all these see G. A. Borgese, Storia della critica romantica in Italia, cit.

XV. For the life of De Sanctis and the bibliography of his works see Scritti varî, ed. Croce, ii. pp. 267-308, also the volume In memoria di Fr. de S. edited by M. Mandalari, Naples, 1884.

On De Sanctis as literary critic, P. Villari, Commemorazione: A. C. de Meis, Commem., in the above-mentioned vol. In memoria: Marc Monnier in Revue des Deux Mondes, April I, 1884: Pio Ferrieri, Fr. de S. e la critica letteraria, Milan, 1888: B. Croce, La critica letteraria, Rome, 1896, ch. 5; Fr. de S. e i suoi critici recenti (in Atti dell' Accad. Pontan. vol. xxviii. reprinted in Scritti varî, append, ii. 309-352), and prefs. to vols, already quoted, La lett. ital. nel sec. XIX, and Scritti varî; De Sanctis e Schopenhauer, in Atti della Pontaniana, xxxii. 1902: Enr. Cocchia, II pensiero critico di Fr. de S. nell' arte e nella politica, Naples, 1899: G. A. Borgese, op. cit. last chapter and passim.

XVI. On the last phase of metaphysical Æsthetic, G. Neudecker, Studien z. Geschichte d. deutschen Ästhetik s. Kant, Würzburg, 1878, which discusses and criticises more particularly Vischer (self-criticism), Zimmermann, Lotze, Köstlin, Siebeck, Fechner and Deutinger. On Zimmermann, von Hartmann, op. cit. pp. 267-304: Bonatelli, in Nuova Antologia, October 1867. On Lotze, Fritz Kogel, Lotzes Ästhetik, Göttingen, 1886: A. Matragrin, Essai sur l'esthétique de Lotze, Paris, 1901. On Köstlin, von Hartmann, pp. 304-317. On Schasler, see the same, pp. 248-252, also Bosanquet, pp. 414-424. On Hartmann, Ad. Faggi, Ed. H. e l' estetica tedesca, Florence, 1895. On Vischer see M. Diez, Fried. Vischer u. d. ästh. Formalismus, Stuttgart, 1889.

For French and English æstheticians, besides Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit., on Ruskin, see J. Milsand, L'Esthétique anglaise, étude sur J. Ruskin, Paris, 1864: R. de la Sizeranne, Ruskin et la religion de la beauté, 3rd ed., Paris, 1898; cf. part iii. On Fornari, V. Imbriani, Vito Fornari estetico (reprinted in Studî letterarî e bizzarri e satiriche, ed. Croce, Bari, 1907). On Tari see Nic. Gallo, Antonio Tari, studio critico, Palermo, 1884: Croce, in Critica, v. (1907), pp. 357-361; also in pref. to vol.: A. Tari, saggi di estetica e metafisica, Bari, 1910.

XVII. For positivist Æsthetic see Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit. iv. (1st ed.) vol. ii. pp. 120-136, 326-369: N. Gallo, La scienza dell' arte, Turin, 1887, chs. 6-8, pp. 162-216.

XVIII. On Kirchmann, von Hartmann, pp. 253-265. For various recent German æstheticians, Hugo Spitzer, Kritische Studien z. Ästhet. der Gegenwart, Leipzig, 1897. On Nietzsche, Ettore G. Zoccoli, Fred. Nietzsche, Modena, 1898, pp. 268-344: Jul. Zeitler, Nietzsches Ästhetik, Leipzig, 1900. On Flaubert, A. Fusco, La teoria dell' arte in G. F., Naples, 1907: cf. Critica, vi. (1908), pp. 125-134. For books on Æsthetic published during the last decade of the nineteenth century see Luc. Arréat, Dix années de philosophie, 1891-1900, Paris, 1901, pp. 74-116. A few remarks on contemporary Æsthetic are made by K. Groos in Die Philosophie im Beginn. des XX^en Jahrh., ed. by W. Windelband, Heidelberg, 1904-1905. For latest books on Æsthetic see Critica, ed. B. Croce (Naples), from 1903 onward, which publishes reviews of them. There is also a review, started in 1906, published at Stuttgart (ed. F. Enke), Zeitschrift für Ästhetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft, edited by Max Dessoir.

XIX. The history of particular problems is usually omitted, or, at best, erroneously treated in histories of Æsthetic: for example, see the difficulty experienced by Ed. Müller, Gesch., cit., ii. pref. pp. vi-vii, in connecting his treatment of the history of Rhetoric with that of Poetics. Some writers attach Rhetoric to the individual arts or to artistic technique; others treat the doctrines of the modification of beauty and of natural beauty (in the metaphysical sense) as special problems; others, again, discuss the kinds or classifications in art in an incidental manner, without seeking to incorporate them in the principal æsthetic problem.

§ 1. On the history of Rhetoric in the ancient sense see Rich. Volkmann, Die Rhetorik der Griechen und Römer in systematischer Übersicht dargestellt, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1885, of capital importance: A. Ed. Chaignet, La Rhétorique et son histoire, Paris, 1888; rich in material, but ill-arranged and with the preconception that Rhetoric is still a defensible body of science. For special treatment see Ch. Benoist, Essai historique sur les premiers manuels d'invention oratoire, jusqu'à Aristote, Paris, 1846: Georg Thiele, Hermagoras, ein Beitrag z. Geschichte d. Rhetorik, Strasburg, 1893. There is no history of rhetoric in modern times. For criticism of Vives and other Spaniards see Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit. iii. pp. 211-300 (2nd ed.). For Patrizzi see B. Croce, F. Patrizzi e la critica della rettorica antica, in the vol. of Studî in honour of A. Graf, Bergamo, 1903 (Probl. d. est. pp. 297-308).

For Rhetoric as theory of literary form in antiquity see Volkmann, op. cit. pp. 393-566: Chaignet, op. cit. pp. 413-539: also Egger, passim, and Saintsbury, bks. i. ii. For purposes of comparison see Paul Reynaud, La Rhétorique sanskrite exposée dans son développement historique et ses rapports avec la rhétorique classique, Paris, 1884. For the Middle Ages, Comparetti, Virgilio nel medio evo, vol. i., and Saintsbury, bk. iii. There is need for a work on modern Rhetoric in this sense also. For the form it assumed ultimately according to the theory of Gröber see B. Croce, Di alcuni principî di sintassi e stilistica psicologiche del Gröber, in Atti dell' Accad. Pontan. vol. xxix. 1899: K. Vossler, Literaturblatt für germ. u. roman. Philologie, 1900, N.I.: B. Croce, Le categorie rettoriche e il prof. Gröber, in Flegrea, April 1900: K. Vossler, Positivismo e idealismo nella scienza del linguaggio, Ital. trans. Bari, 1908, pp. 48-61 (cf. Probl. d. est. pp. 143-171). Very incomplete observations on the history of the concept of metaphor are made by A. Biese, Philosophie d. Metaphorischen, Hamburg-Leipzig, 1893, pp. 1-16; but this book has the merit of calling attention to the importance of the views and influence of Vico.

§ 2. For the history of the literary kinds in antiquity see the works above quoted by Müller, Egger, Saintsbury, and the vast literature on Aristotle's Poetics. For comparison with Sanskrit poetics, Sylvain Levi, Le Théâtre indien, Paris, 1890, esp. pp. 11, 152. For mediæval poetry see esp. Gio. Mari, I trattati medievali di ritmica latina, Milan, 1899; and his recent edition of Poetica magistri Iohannis anglici, 1901.

For the history of the kinds under the Renaissance see principally Spingarn, op. cit. i. chs. 3-4; ii. ch. 2; iii. ch. 3. Also Menendez y Pelayo, Borinski, Saintsbury, passim.

Special works: on Pietro Aretino, De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana, ii. pp. 122-144: A. Graf, Attraverso il cinquecento, Turin, 1888, pp. 87-167: K. Vossler, P. A.'s künstlerisches Bekenntniss, Heidelberg, 1901. On Guarini, V. Rossi, G. B. Guarini e il Pastor Fido, Turin, 1886, pp. 238-250. On Scaliger, Lintilhac, Un Coup d'État, cit. For the three unities, L. Morandi, Baretti contro Voltaire, 2nd ed., Città di Castello, 1884: Breitinger, Les Unités d'Aristote avant le Cid de Corneille, 2nd ed., Geneva-Basle, 1895: J. Ebner, Beitrag z. einer Geschichte d. dramatischen Einheiten in Italien, Munich, 1898. On the Spanish polemic concerning comedy see A. Morel Fatio on the defenders of comedy and of the Arte nuevo, in the Bulletin Hispanique of Bordeaux, vols. iii. and iv.: on the dramatic theories see Arnaud, Les Théories dramatiques au XVII^e siècle, étude sur la vie et les œuvres de l'abbé D'Aubignac, Paris, 1888: Paul Dupont, Un Poète philosophe au commencement du XVIII^e siècle, Houdar de la Motte, Paris, 1898: Alfredo Galletti, Le teorie drammatiche e la tragedia in Italia nel secolo XVIII, part i. 1700-1750, Cremona, 1901. On the history of French Poetics, F. Brunetière, L'Évolution des genres dans l'histoire de la littérature, Paris, 1890, vol. i. introd.: "L'évolution de la critique depuis la Renaissance jusqu'à nos jours." On that of English Poetics, Paul Hamelius, Die Kritik in d. engl. Literatur des XVII en u. XVIII^en Jahrh., Leipzig, 1897: also the well-filled chapter in Gayley-Scott, op. cit. pp. 382-422, the sketch of a book on the subject. For the romantic period see Alfred Michiels, Histoire des idées littéraires en France au XIX^e siècle, et de leurs origines dans les siècles antérieures, 4th ed., Paris, 1863. For Italy see G. A. Borgese, op. cit.

§ 3. For the early history of the distinction and classification of the arts see the literature quoted above in relation to Lessing, and his Laokoon, with notes by Blümner. For subsequent history, H. Lotze, Geschichte, cit., bk. iii.: Max Schasler, Das System der Künste auf einem neuen, im Wesen der Kunst begründeten Gliederungsprincip, 2nd ed., Leipzig-Berlin, 1881, introd.: Ed. v. Hartmann, Deutsche Ästh. s. Kant, bk. ii. part ii. especially pp. 524-580: V. Basch, Essai sur l'esth. de Kant, pp. 483-496.

§ 4. For the doctrine of styles in antiquity see Volkmann, op. cit. pp. 532-566. The history of grammar and parts of speech is treated fully so far as Græco-Roman antiquity is concerned in Laur. Lersch, Die Sprachphilosophie der Alten, Bonn, 1838-1841: better still by Steinthal, Geschichte, cit. vol. ii. For Apollonius Dyscolus see Egger, Apollon Dyscole, Paris, 1854. For the history of grammar in the Middle Ages see Ch. Thurot, Extraits de divers manuscrits latins pour servir à l'histoire des doctrines grammaticales au moyen âge, Paris, 1869. For modern times, C. Trabalza, Storia della grammatica italiana, Milan, 1908. For the history of Criticism several books mentioned under § 2 may be consulted: in addition to these, B. Croce, Per la storia della critica e storiografia letteraria, containing Italian examples (Probl. d. est. pp. 419-448): for the theories of recent French criticism see Ém. Hennequin, La Critique scientifique, Paris, 1888, and Ernest Tissot, Les évolutions de la critique française, Paris, 1890. On the concept of "romanticism" see G. Muoni, Note per una poetica storica del romanticismo, Milan, 1906: cf. B. Croce, Le definizioni del romanticismo, in Critica, iv. pp. 241-245 (reprinted in Probl. di estetica, pp. 285-294).