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Chapter 31: NOTES
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About This Book

This volume surveys the anatomy, classification, development, and biology of lower chordates and fishes, combining descriptive morphology, embryology, and systematic accounts. It treats hemichordates (enteropneusts and pterobranchs), tunicates and their life cycles, cephalochordates (amphioxus), cyclostomes, and a broad treatment of fishes including elasmobranchs, teleosts, crossopterygians, dipnoans, and fossil groups. The text covers external and internal anatomy, skeleton, scales, respiration, circulation, muscles, nervous and sensory systems, reproductive biology, and paleontological affinities, and offers a detailed classification of teleosts with species accounts and morphological illustrations to support comparative and phylogenetic discussion.

END OF VOL. VII

Printed by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.

THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY

Edited by S. F. Harmer, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, Superintendent of the University Museum of Zoology; and A. E. Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, University Lecturer on the Morphology of Invertebrates.

To be completed in Ten Volumes. 8vo. 17s. net each.

Intended in all respects to be a Standard Natural History accurate enough to be of use to the Student, and at the same time popular enough for the general reader who desires trustworthy information as to the structure and habits of all members of the Animal Kingdom, from the Protozoa to the Mammals. The Volumes are fully illustrated by original figures drawn where possible from nature. When complete the Series is one which should be indispensable in all Libraries, whether public or private.

WORMS, LEECHES, etc.

VOLUME II.

Flat Worms. By F. W. Gamble, M.Sc. Vict., Owens College.—Nemertines. By Miss L. Sheldon, Newnham College, Cambridge.—Thread-worms, etc. By A. E. Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.—Rotifers. By Marcus Hartog, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge, D.Sc. Lond., Professor of Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork.—Polychaet Worms. By W. Blaxland Benham, D.Sc., Hon. M.A. Oxon., Professor of Biology in the University of Otago.—Earth-worms and Leeches. By F. E. Beddard, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Prosector to the Zoological Society, London.—Gephyrea, etc. By A. E. Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.—Polyzoa. By S. F. Harmer, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.

CAMBRIDGE REVIEW.—"Several of the groups treated of in this volume are unknown by sight even, to the general reader, and possess no popular name whatsoever; and as only a few insignificant details are known of the habits of the animals composing them, their treatment in the volume before us has necessarily been to a large extent anatomical. This circumstance renders the book of especial value to students, more particularly as in some cases the articles on the groups in question are the first comprehensive ones dealing with their respective subjects.... Most of the articles are of a very high order of merit—taken as a whole, it may be said that they are by far the best which have as yet been published.... We may say with confidence that the same amount of information, within the same compass, is to be had in no other zoological work."

NATURAL SCIENCE.—"This second volume of the Cambridge Natural History is certain to prove a most welcome addition to English Zoological literature. It deals with a series of animal groups, all deeply interesting to the specialist in morphology; some important from their economic relations to other living things, others in their life-histories rivalling the marvels of fairy-tales. And the style in which they are here treated is also interesting; history and the early observations of the older writers lend their charm; accounts of habits and mode of occurrence, of life, in a word, from the cradle to the grave, are given in ample detail, accompanied by full references to modern and current literature. The whole is admirably illustrated."

SHELLS

VOLUME III.

Molluscs and Brachiopods. By the Rev. A. H. Cooke, M.A., A. E. Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., and F. R. C. Reed, M.A.

TIMES.—"There are very many, not only among educated people who take an interest in science, but even among specialists, who will welcome a work of reasonable compass and handy form containing a trustworthy treatment of the various departments of Natural History by men who are familiar with, and competent to deal with, the latest results of scientific research. Altogether, to judge from this first volume, the Cambridge Natural History promises to fulfil all the expectations that its prospectus holds out."

FIELD.—"We know of no book available to the general reader which affords such a vast fund of information on the structure and habits of molluscs."

KNOWLEDGE.—"If succeeding volumes are like this one, the Cambridge Natural History will rank as one of the finest works on natural history ever published."

ATHENÆUM.—"The series certainly ought not to be restricted in its circulation to lecturers and students only; and, if the forthcoming volumes reach the standard of the one here under notice, the success of the enterprise should be assured."

INSECTS AND CENTIPEDES

VOLUME V.

Peripatus. By Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S.—Myriapods. By F. G. Sinclair, M.A.—Insects. Part I. By David Sharp, M.A. Cantab., M.B. Edin., F.R.S.

FIELD.—"Although written for the student and the specialist, the book is not the less adapted to all intelligent readers who wish to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the habits, structure, and the modern classification of the animals of which it treats. To such it cannot be recommended too strongly."

SCIENCE GOSSIP.—"Every library, school, and college in the country should possess this work, which is of the highest educational value."

Prof. RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F.R.S., F.C.S., in his Presidential Address to the Entomological Society of London, said:—"The authors of this volume are certainly to be congratulated upon having furnished such a valuable contribution to our literature. When its successor appears, and I will venture to express the hope that this will be at no very distant period, we shall be in possession of a treatise on the natural history of insects which, from the point of view of the general reader, will compare most favourably with any similar work that has been published in the English language."

ENTOMOLOGIST'S MONTHLY MAGAZINE.—"We venture to think the work will be found indispensable to all who seek to extend their general knowledge beyond the narrowing influence of exclusive attention to certain orders or groups, and that it will take a high position in 'The Cambridge Natural History' series."

INSECTSPart II.

VOLUME VI.

Hymenoptera continued (Tubulifera and Aculeata), Coleoptera, Strepsiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Aphaniptera, Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Anoplura. By David Sharp, M.A., F.R.S.

SATURDAY REVIEW.—"Dr. Sharp's treatment is altogether worthy of the series and of his own high scientific reputation. But in a work of this sort it is not only necessary that information should be accurate, but also that it shall be presented to the eye, so far as illustrations and printing are concerned, in such a way as to render its matter as easily intelligible as possible, and readily usable for purposes of reference. Under both these heads we have nothing but commendation for Mr. Sharp's treatise. The illustrations are indeed beautiful, and the use of the heavy type for the headings of the various sections and leading paragraphs materially helps the reader in the progress of his study. Certainly this is a book that should be in every entomologist's library."

DAILY NEWS.—"It would be hard to say too much in praise of this most admirable volume. It is too often the case that scientific books are written in a dull and uninteresting style. The reader will find nothing of that kind to complain of here. The descriptions are clear, the illustrations are excellent; while, as in the previous volumes of the series, printing and paper are all that could be desired."

FISHES

VOLUME VII.

Hemichordata. By S. F. Harmer, Sc.D., F.R.S. Ascidians and Amphioxus. By W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S. Fishes. By T. W. Bridge, Sc.D., F.R.S., and G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S.

AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES

VOLUME VIII.

By Hans Gadow, M.A., F.R.S.

FIELD.—"The work is worthy of the series in which it appears, and we cannot give it higher praise."

SCIENCE GOSSIP.—"More than maintains the high scientific reputation of this series. The herpetologists, or students of the Amphibia and Reptiles, have now a standard work of the highest class."

LANCET.—"An account of both Amphibia and Reptiles which should satisfy the expert, and at the same time entertain the reader who is merely interested in the tit-bits of natural history.... A book full of accurate information and pleasant reading."

MORNING POST.—"A delightful as well as a serviceable book.... Herein perhaps lies the great charm and merit of Dr. Gadow's book, that, while satisfying all the inquiries of the student, it is also in great part written for the ordinary intelligence, and the naturalist in the crowd may, while necessarily gliding over distressing technicalities, find in its pages many hours of profitable and entertaining study of the habits of the classes under notice."

NATURE.—"In concluding the review we would express the opinion that by this handsome volume a very important addition to science has been made; that the beautiful illustrations, together with the clear and charming accounts of the life-histories which it contains, will do much to popularise the study of a rather neglected section of zoology; and that lovers of Reptiles, of which there are more than one generally thinks, will feel that the new knowledge imparted to them emanates from one who is thoroughly in sympathy with their enthusiasm."

BIRDS

VOLUME IX.

By A. H. Evans, M.A., Clare College, Cambridge. With numerous Illustrations by G. E. Lodge.

IBIS.—"Mr. Evans has produced a book full of concentrated essence of information on birds, especially as regards their outer structure and habits, and one that we can cordially recommend as a work of reference to all students of ornithology."

NATURE NOTES.—"We venture to predict that, of the ten volumes of which this excellent series is planned to consist, none will secure a wider popularity than Mr. Evans's treatise on birds. Strange as it may appear, among the many books on birds that have appeared of late years, we do not recall any that covers the same ground.... We are grateful to the author for the mine of valuable information which he has crowded between his two covers."

SCIENCE GOSSIP.—"General readers will find this work most useful in obtaining a proper understanding of birds, and will be assisted by the effective diagram of a hawk in the introduction, showing the recognised names of every part of the exterior appearance. The expressions used in naming the various portions are fully explained on the adjoining page. As we have already said, the illustrations are admirable. The book is a useful addition to any library, as it treats of nearly every known kind of bird throughout the world."

SATURDAY REVIEW.—"The expert and the novice alike must be at once delighted by the accuracy and the beauty of the illustrations.... It is astonishing to note the mass of information the author has been able to bring together.... With a little practice any observant person would soon learn by the help of this volume to track down any bird very nearly to its ultimate place in classification."

MAMMALS

VOLUME X.

Mammalia. By Frank Evers Beddard, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Vice-Secretary and Prosector of the Zoological Society of London.

NATURE.—"Cannot fail to be of very high value to all students of the Mammalia, especially from the standpoints of morphology and palæontology."

ATHENÆUM.—"Mr. Beddard has produced a volume equal in interest and value to the others in the Cambridge series."

LAND AND WATER.—"A notable book, the result of long study, patient labour, sound reasoning, and careful selection, for which we are deeply indebted to the author."

DAILY NEWS.—"A volume which, for the interest of its contents and for its style and method of treatment, is not only worthy of its predecessors, but may be regarded as one of the most successful of a brilliant series."

KNOWLEDGE.—"In this volume Mr. Beddard has undoubtedly made an important contribution to the history of mammals, his text-book being the only one which can be said to be up to date and to contain notices of the many important types—both recent and fossil—discovered during the last few years."

FIELD.—"Its utility to the working zoological student can hardly be overrated. It is exceedingly well illustrated."

CONCLUDING VOLUMES IN PREPARATION.

VOLUME I.

Protozoa, Marcus Hartog, M.A., Sc.D., Trinity College (Professor of Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork); Sponges, W. J. Sollas, Sc.D., F.R.S., St. John's College (Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford); Jellyfish, Sea-Anemones, etc., S. J. Hickson, M.A., F.R.S., Downing College (Beyer Professor of Zoology in the Owens College, Manchester); Star-fish, Sea-Urchins, etc., E. W. MacBride, M.A., St. John's College (Professor of Zoology, McGill University, Montreal).

VOLUME IV.

Spiders, Mites, etc., C. Warburton, M.A., Christ's College (Zoologist to the Royal Agricultural Society); Scorpions, Trilobites, etc., M. Laurie, B.A., King's College, D.Sc. (Edinb.), (Professor of Zoology in St. Mungo's College, Glasgow); Pycnogonids, etc., D'Arcy W. Thompson, C.B., M.A., Trinity College (Professor of Zoology in University College, Dundee); Linguatulida and Tardigrada, A. E. Shipley, M.A., F.R.S.; Crustacea, W. F. R. Weldon, M.A., F.R.S., St. John's College (Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford).

[In the Press.

MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd., LONDON.


NOTES

[1]

Bateson, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 111.

[2]

Gegenbaur, Grundzüge vergl. Anat. 2 ed. 1870, p. 158.

[3]

Lankester, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xvii. 1877, p. 448 (= Aspidophora, Allman, J. Linn. Soc. xiv. 1879, pp. 490 n., 586).

[4]

Spengel, Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xv. 1902, p. 209.

[5]

Fauna u. Flora G.v. Neapel, 18 Monogr. 1893 (reviewed by MacBride in Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxvi. 1894, p. 385); Zool. Jahrb. Anat. xviii. Pt. ii. 1903, p. 271.

[6]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 208; xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 81; xxvi 1886, pp. 511, 535.

[7]

Zool. Results, Part iii. Cambridge, 1899, p. 223.

[8]

= 1 inch.

[9]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 209.

[10]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 91.

[11]

Pouchet, C. R. Ac. Sci. cii. 1886, p. 272.

[12]

Kowalevsky, Mém. Ac. St. Petersb. (7) x. No. 3, 1866, p. 7.

[13]

Spengel, Monogr. p. 474.

[14]

Zool. Res. Pt. iii. 1899, p. 256.

[15]

See also Ritter, Biol. Bull. iii. 1902, p. 255.

[16]

Zool. Res. iii. 1899, pp. 273, 280.

[17]

Morgan, J. Morphol. v. 1891, p. 422; ix. 1894, pp. 44, 48, 72.

[18]

Willey, Zool. Res. Pt. iii. 1899, p. 245.

[19]

Zool Res. Pt. iii. p. 228.

[20]

Spengel, Monogr. pp. 179, 187; Willey, Zool. Res. iii. p. 236.

[21]

Willey.

[22]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. 1898, p. 601; xliii. 1900, p. 351.

[23]

Monogr. p. 684, Pl. xxvi. Figs. 14-18; see also Willey, Zool. Res. iii. p. 245, and Dawydoff, Zoolog. Anz. xxv. 1902, p. 551.

[24]

Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xv. 1902, p. 209. The Harrimaniidae = Balanoglossus of the Monograph (1893): Glossobalanus = Ptychodera, s.str., 1893: Balanoglossus = Tauroglossus, 1893: Ptychodera = Chlamydothorax, 1893.

[25]

Punnett ("Enteropneusta," in Gardiner's Fauna and Geogr. Maldive and Laccadive Arch. ii. Pt. ii. 1903) finds small liver-sacs in Spengelia, and describes Willeyia, a new genus of Glandicipitidae.

[26]

Exc. G. ruficollis, Willey.

[27]

Spengel, Monogr. p. 370 f.

[28]

Cf. Spengel, Monogr. p. 363 f.

[29]

Bourne, J. Mar. Biol. Ass. (N.S.), i. 1889-90, p. 63.

[30]

This closely resembles T. grenacheri, but see Willey, op. cit. p. 285.

[31]

Haldeman, Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. vi. No. 54, 1886, p. 45.

[32]

For Vertebrates see Shipley, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxvii. 1887, p. 340.

[33]

The largest known eggs are those of Harrimania kupfferi (1.3 mm.). The eggs of Dolichoglossus kowalevskii measure .37 mm., while the youngest Tornaria found by Morgan, already transparent and with their tissues distended by water, were only about two-thirds that size.

[34]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 208; xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 81; xxvi. 1886, pp. 511, 535.

[35]

Agassiz, Bourne, Spengel, Morgan (in T. agassizii).

[36]

Morgan (in Balanoglossus biminiensis).

[37]

A similar shrinkage takes place in the metamorphosis of the larva (Leptocephalus) of Eels, as has been shown by Grassi, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxix. 1897, p. 374.

[38]

Schimkewitsch, Zool. Anz. xi. 1888, p. 283; Morgan, J. Morphol. ix. 1894, p. 60; Punnett (op. cit. p. 661) believes that they are ectodermal.

[39]

Allman's name (Quart. J. Micr. Sci. ix. 1869, p. 57 f.) replaces that given by Sars, because the latter gave no description by which the organism could be recognised.

[40]

"Remarkable forms of Animal Life," i. Christiania Univ.-Program for the first half-year, 1869; and Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xiv. 1874, p. 23.

[41]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 622.

[42]

Proc. Roy. Soc. lii. 1893, p. 132; Festschr. 70 ten. Geburtstage R. Leuckarts, 4to, Leipzig, 1892, p. 293.

[43]

Hincks, Hist. Brit. Marine Polyzoa, vol. i. 1880, p. 581.

[44]

Rés. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, Bryozoaires, 1903, p. 23.

[45]

Challenger Reports, Part lxii. 1887. See also Masterman in Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. 1898, p. 340; xlvi. 1903, p. 715; Rep. Brit. Ass. (1898), 1899, p. 914; Tr. R. Soc. Edinb. xxxix. 1900, p. 507; and the notes in the Zool. Anz. xx. 1897, pp. 342, 443, 505; xxii. 1899, pp. 359, 361; and xxvi. 1903, pp. 368, 593.

[46]

Cf. Cole, J. Linn. Soc. xxvii. 1899-1900, p. 256.

[47]

Two dorsal portions of this region, which are regarded by Masterman as lateral notochords, appear to me to represent the dorsal part of the pharynx of Ptychodera.

[48]

The diameter of a single individual removed from its tube is given by Fowler as .123 mm.

[49]

See, however, Conte and Vaney, C. R. Ac. Sci. 135, 1902, pp. 63, 748.

[50]

Pp. 450-462.

[51]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. 1898, p. 281; xliii. 1900, p. 375; xlv. 1902, p. 485.

[52]

Cf. p. 19.

[53]

J. Coll. Japan, xiii. Pt. iv. 1901, p. 507.

[54]

Arch. Biol. xviii. 1902, p. 495; Wiss. Meeresuntersuch. vi. Abt. Helgoland, Heft 1, 1903.

[55]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xlvii. Pt. i, 1903, p. 103.

[56]

Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lxxv. 1903, pp. 391, 473.

[57]

Vol. II. p. 459.

[58]

Huxley, in 1877 (Man. Anat. Invert. Animals, p. 674), proposed to unite the Enteropneusta with the Tunicata as Pharyngopneusta, in allusion to the gill-slits connected with the pharynx; but the view was first defended in detail by Bateson.

[59]

See, for example, Minot, Amer. Nat. xxxi. 1897, p. 927.

[60]

See MacBride, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. 1898, p. 589; xliii. 1900, p. 351.

[61]

Bury, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxix. 1889, p. 409; xxxviii. 1896, p. 125; MacBride, ibid. xxxviii. p. 395; Masterman, Tr. R. Soc. Edinb. xl. Pt. ii. No. 19, 1902, p. 403.

[62]

This view was definitely formulated by Metschnikoff in 1881 (Zool. Anz. iv. 1881, pp. 139, 153).

[63]

Cf. Morgan, J. Morphol. v. 1891, p. 445; ix. 1894, pp. 64-66.

[64]

Cf. Lang, Jena. Zeitschr. xxv. 1891, p. 1.

[65]

J. Morphol. ix. p. 72.

[66]

Mém. Mus. Paris, ii. 1815.

[67]

Mém. s. l. Anim. s. Vert. Pt. ii. Paris, 1816.

[68]

Zoologia Danica, iv. 1806.

[69]

Hist. Nat. d. Anim. sans Vert. Paris, 1815-1822, t. iii.

[70]

Mém. Instit. Paris, xviii. 1842.

[71]

Zur vergl. Physiol. Wirbellos. Thiere, Brunswick.

[72]

Comptes Rendus, Paris, xxii; and Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 3 (Zool.) v.

[73]

Phil. Trans. 1851; Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiii. 1860.

[74]

Mém. Acad. St. Pétersbourg (7), x. 1866.

[75]

Mém. Instit. Paris, xviii. 1842.

[76]

Arch. mikr. Anat. vi. 1872.

[77]

Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genève, xxi. 1872.

[78]

Arch. Zool. Expér. i. 1872.

[79]

Synascidien der Bucht von Rovigno, Wien, 1883.

[80]

Challenger Reports, Tunicata, Part i. vol. vi. 1882; Part ii. vol. xiv. 1886; Part iii. vol. xxvii. 1888.

[81]

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) xi. 1863, p. 153; Journ. Linn. Soc. 1868, etc.

[82]

Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1875 and 1877.

[83]

Arch. Zool. Expér. iii. 1874, and vi. 1877; Mém. Instit. Paris, xlv. 1892.

[84]

Vid. Medd. Nat. For. Copenhagen, 1880, 1882, 1884, etc.

[85]

Nat. Tijdschr. Ned.-Indie, 1885, etc.

[86]

Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xv. xxiii. and xxiv.; Cat. of Tunicata in Australian Museum, 1899; also Challenger Reports (see note 80).

[87]

Arch. de Biol. ii.

[88]

"The Genus Salpa," Mem. J. Hopkins Univ. 1893.

[89]

Zeits. wiss. Zool. 1876, 1878; Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, 1883, etc.

[90]

Jen. Zeitschr. 1886, 1888, etc.; also Bronn's Thier-Reich.

[91]

Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, 1893 and 1897; and Zeits. wiss. Zool. 1895 and 1896.

[92]

Journ. Anat. Phys. Paris, xxi. 1885.

[93]

Fauna and Flora G. v. Neapel, Monogr. x. 1884.

[94]

These sphincters close the only openings through the tough test so effectually that when collectors are preserving Ascidians in alcohol it is advisable to make one or more slits in the test to allow the sea-water to escape and the spirit to enter.

[95]

Except in Cynthiidae and Botryllidae where it is dorsal.

[96]

The early stages of Ciona, of which Castle has given a very complete account (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. xxvii. No. 7, 1896), differ in some points from those of Ascidia described here.

[97]

Possibly the diverticulum may be wholly derived from the neural tube (see Willey, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. 1893).

[98]

See Lohmann, Schrift. Naturw. Ver. Schlesw.-Holst. xi. 1899, 347.

[99]

Arch. de Biologie, vi. 1887.

[100]

See Journ. of Morphology, xii.-xiv. 1896-1898.

[101]

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. xxxv. No. 4, 1899, p. 59.

[102]

Journ. Morph. xii. 1896, p. 149.

[103]

See Pizon, Ann. des Sci. Nat. 7e sér. Zool. xiv. 1892.

[104]

"Oozooid" and "blastozooid" have not always been used in the same sense. It is best to regard as oozooid the first member of a new colony derived from an embryo formed by the fertilisation of an ovum, and to call the remaining ascidiozooids produced by gemmation the blastozooids.