The International Auxiliary Language Esperanto: Grammar & Commentary

42. Grammatical Terminations (gramatikaj finiĝoj).—Every word in Esperanto, except the primary words, has a grammatical termination which shows:—

(a). The part of speech.

(b). Whether the word is singular or plural.

(c). Whether in the nominative or accusative case.

(d). The mood, tense, and participles of a verb.

A list of the grammatical terminations will be found in par. 53.

43. Suffixes.—Suffixes are syllables placed between the root and grammatical termination, adding to the word the idea contained in the suffix as well as that in the root.

A list of suffixes will be found in par. 54.

44. Prefixes.—A prefix is a syllable placed before the root, adding to the root the idea contained in the prefix.

A list of prefixes will be found in par. 55.

45. From the foregoing definitions we see that words in Esperanto are either primary words, or words composed of:—

(a). Roots and grammatical terminations.

(b). Roots, suffixes, and grammatical terminations.

(c). Prefixes, roots, and grammatical terminations.

(d). Prefixes, roots, suffixes, and grammatical terminations.

46. Order of Suffixes.—The grammatical terminations, A, E, I, O, U, AS, IS, OS, US, showing the part of speech and mood and tense of verbs, must end all words (except some of the primary words), the accusative N or plural J being added if required. Suffixes precede this termination in their natural order. For instance, if we want to say "a tiny female kitten," we commence with the root kat-, giving the idea only of "cat" ; then add -id- (suffix for "offspring of") kat-id- = kitten; then -in- (female suffix) kat-id-in- = kitten female; then -et- (diminutive suffix) kat-id-in-et- = kitten female tiny; we have now got the root and all the suffixes, and we might make the word an adjective by adding A, but we want a noun, so add O; kat-id-in-et-o = a tiny female kitten. If we place -et- after kat-, we commence by speaking of a "tiny cat," for kateto has that meaning, so katetidino would be the "female offspring of a tiny cat." If we reversed the three suffixes, we should get kat-in-et-id-o = offspring of a tiny female cat. This exaggerated example of building up suffixes will show the importance of placing them in their natural order. The student cannot make a mistake if he commences with the root and forms a word of each suffix in succession; for instance, hund-o = a dog, hund-id-o = a puppy, hundid-in-o = a female puppy, hundidin-eg-o = a huge female puppy.

47. Order of Prefixes.—In like manner prefixes must come in their natural order, as:—Sano = health, mal-sano = illness, re-mal-sano = a return of illness, a relapse.

48. Order of roots in compound words.—The principal root is always placed last, and receives the grammatical termination, with or without a suffix. The root of a subordinate word is sufficient without any suffix.

Examples.—Ĉas-gard-ist-o = A gamekeeper, (ĉasi = to hunt, ĉas-aĵo = a thing hunted, game; but it is unnecessary to add the suffix -aĵ- to the subordinate root). Roz-kolora = Rose coloured. Skrib-tablo = Writing table. Lerno-libro = Instruction book, manual (lern-o, the root, made a full word for euphony). Compare: librolerno, book-learning. Tir-kesto = A drawer (tir-i = to draw, kesto = a chest). Lum-turo = Lighthouse (lum-i = to shine, turo = a tower). Lip-haroj = Moustache (lip-o = a lip, haroj = hairs). Vang-haroj = Whiskers (vang-o = a cheek).

49. When the root should be a noun, adjective, or adverb.—When the joining of the root alone makes the compound word difficult to pronounce, the root is generally made a noun by adding O for the sake of euphony, as:—Lerno-libro = manual, instruction book. If the prefixed root alone would not give the required meaning, the suitable grammatical ending must be added. Estis unu-taga laboro = it was one day’s work. Estis la unua-taga laboro = it was the first day’s work. La supre-citita paragrafo = the above-quoted paragraph. In case of adverbs, N to form the accusative is also added, if direction is implied, as:—Li supren-iris la monton = he ascended the mountain (see 67 (b)).

N.B.—The hyphens are not necessary.

50. The idea conveyed by the root.—In forming a word, the first thing is to find out the exact primary idea contained in the root. Do not think, for instance, that because you happen to know that one of the meanings of cel-o is end, that cel-i will mean to finish or end. The primary idea of cel- is aim, or purpose, therefore cel-i is to aim, to purpose. Do not, in the case of a word with one or more suffixes, think that because you know one of its meanings, you know also the idea conveyed in its root. For instance, kresk-aĵ-o is a plant, but do not at once say that kresk-i is to plant; kreskaĵo comes quite logically from kreski = to grow, therefore kreskaĵo is a thing grown, a growth, a plant. In other words, make certain that you understand the exact meaning of the Esperanto root; and be careful not to be misled by the fact that many English words have a number of different meanings.

51. The Primary words are 158 in number, and must be carefully learnt (see list, page 334). They are not only complete words in themselves with a definite meaning, but they can be treated as root-words and receive prefixes, suffixes, and grammatical terminations. There is no rule to prevent any of these words, ending in a vowel, from receiving, if logically allowable, the accusative N or the plural J (see par. 142).

Examples.—Jen (behold), jene = As follows. Ne (no, not), nei = To deny. Tie (there), tieulo = A man from there (that place). Ĉirkaŭ (around, round), ĉirkaŭi = To surround. Jes (yes), jeso = An affirmation. Tiaj esprimoj = Such expressions. Tiuj ĉevaloj = Those horses. Li aĉetis ĉiujn ĉevalojn = He bought all the horses. Faru al mi ian respondon = Make me some (kind of) reply. Venu tien ĉi = Come hither. Diru al mi tion, kion vi faris = Tell me what (that which) you did (have done). Unuj faris tion ĉi, aliaj tion = Some did this, others that.

Among the Primary Words are found all the personal and demonstrative pronouns, all the cardinal numbers and prepositions, and also many common adverbs and conjunctions. It is important, therefore, that the student should thoroughly master their meaning.

52. Foreign words are those which in most languages are derived from the same source, and, being consequently much alike in formation, are easily understood by most nations, there being only a slight difference in spelling and that difference of termination which occurs in all languages. Dr. Zamenhof wisely lays down that they should undergo no change, beyond conforming to Esperanto orthography and its grammatical terminations.

In order to show their change from English spelling, the following examples are given, not only of words which may be called "foreign," but of others that are a near approach to English in formation. It must be borne in mind that these changes of letters by no means invariably take place; they are only general.

52 (a).—Initial and Medial Letters.

C (hard) = K generally, as:—Declare = deklari, economy = ekonomio, decameter = dekametro, hectogram = hektogramo. In a few cases C becomes Ĉ, as:—Dedicate = dediĉi, carpenter = ĉarpentisto (probably from the French charpentier).

C (soft) generally undergoes no change, so remains C with its sound of TS, as:—Cipher = cifero, cigar = cigaro, glycerine = glicerino, grimace = grimaco, spice = spico. Some few words change to Z, as:—Price = prezo.

Ch (soft) = Ĉ generally, as:—Chamber = ĉambro, charming = ĉarma, chaste = ĉasta, chief = ĉefo.

Ch (hard) = Ĥ generally, as:—Chameleon = ĥameleono, chaos = ĥaoso, chemistry = ĥemio, cholera = ĥolero, hypochondria = hipoĥondrio, chorister = ĥoristo. It will be seen that these words are mostly derived from the Greek.

G (soft or hard) = G generally, as:—Geology = geologio, elegant = eleganta, general (officer) = generalo. The exceptions in which Ĝ is used are mostly words following the French pronunciation, as:—Danger = danĝero, garden = ĝardeno, general (adjective) = ĝenerala, germ = ĝermo, giraffe = ĝirafo, etc.

PH = F, as:—Elephantiasis = elefantiazo, sphere = sfero, etc.

QU = KV, as:—Equivalent = ekvivalenta, eloquent = elokventa, inquisition = inkvizicio, quantity = kvanto, quadratic = kvadrata.

S = S, but in a few instances it becomes Ŝ (probably following German pronunciation) as:—Slime = ŝlimo, smear = ŝmiri, spare = ŝpari, spin = ŝpini, etc.

S (sounded like Z) = Z generally, as:—Desert = dezerto, rose = rozo, present = prezenti, preside = prezidi, etc.

Sh = Ŝ generally, as:—Shark = ŝarko, ship = ŝipo, shoe = ŝuo.

Th = T, as:—Theatre = teatro, mythology = mitologio.

X = KS or KZ, generally, as:—Example = ekzemplo, exercise = ekzerco, dispatch = ekspedi, excite = eksciti, exposition = ekspozicio, exist = ekzisti. In a few instances X becomes S, as:—Extinguish = estingi, explore = esplori, express = esprimi. Occasionally L is used for X, as:—Expel = elpeli, excrescence = elkreskaĵo, etc. When L is substituted it will be observed that the English prefix EX means "out of," and that, therefore, Esperanto logically uses the preposition EL, meaning "out of," as the prefix.

52 (b).—Terminal Letters.

Terminal Letters.—If the last syllable ends in the sound of a consonant, it is generally right to add O to the last consonant of the English word, to form a noun, as:—Diadem = diademo, diagonal = diagonalo, granite = granito, dialogue = dialogo, debate = debato. There are, of course, exceptions. Beginners should always consult an Esperanto Dictionary if they have any doubt as to internationality or spelling. Note the following terminations, which have a peculiarity of their own:—

-ER. = RO generally, for a noun, as:—December = Decembro, diameter = diametro. Words like "centre," "theatre," etc., sometimes spelt "center," "theater," follow the rule, as:—Centro, teatro.

-IC and -ICAL. = A or IA. These terminations are English suffixes for adjectives. Esperanto, however, discards them and gives its own adjectival suffix A, as Galvanic = galvana, hypnotic = hipnota, theatrical = teatra, identical = identa, theoretic = teoria, geographical = geografia. (See remarks on -OGY and -ISM).

-ICS. = KO. The English termination -ICS has a plural form, but in Esperanto -CS is generally represented by -KO, and not the plural -KOJ, as:—Mathematics = matematiko, etc.

-INE. The I in this termination is occasionally turned into E, as:—Gelatine = gelateno. More commonly it is retained, as:—Glycerine = glicerino.

-ISH. = DUBE (doubtful) may be prefixed to colours to form the adjective in -ish, as:—Dubenigra = blackish, dubeblanka = whitish, dubeverda = greenish. It is, however, better to use the suffix -et, thus: nigreta, verdeta.

-ISM. In many cases the ending -ISM forms part of an international root, and is thus used in Esperanto also; e.g., paroksismo = paroxysm, sofismo = a sophism, fallacy, aforismo = an aphorism, are simple words, for there are no roots paroks, sof (in this sense), afor. In the majority of cases the English suffix -ism and the Esperanto suffix -ism coincide, thus: komunismo = communism, vegetarismo = vegetarianism. Sometimes the English -ism has the meaning -ec, thus: heroeco = heroism, fanatikeco = fanaticism. Catholicism may mean katolikismo or katolikeco.

-IST. Esperanto words ending in -ism often have companion forms in -ist, to which similar remarks apply, as:—sofisto = a sophist, komunisto = a communist.

-MENT. When this is the English termination of a noun derived from a root not ending in -MENT, it becomes O, as:—Embarrass = embarasi, embarrassment = embaraso, rebate = rabati, rebatement = rabato. But when -MENT is part of the English root it is retained, as:—Element = elemento, experiment = eksperimento, fundament = fundamento.

-OGY. Words derived from the Greek change Y into IO, as:—Geology = geologio, theology = teologio. The adjectives of these words end in -IC and -ICAL, and, as their Esperanto root ends in -I, A must be added to this to form the adjectives geologia, teologia.

-SIS. = ZO generally, as:—Apotheosis = apoteozo, hypothesis = hipotezo, oasis = oazo, synthesis = sintezo.

-TH. = T, as:—Hyacinth = hiacinto.

-TION. = CIO occasionally, as:—Declaration = deklaracio, exposition = ekspozicio, arbitration = arbitracio, generation = generacio, situation = situacio. Usually, however, English -tion corresponds to Esperanto -o, -ado, or -aĵo, as:—information = inform-o, -ado, -aĵo; and such forms are often used even when an alternative form in -cio exists, thus: deklar-o, -aĵo.

-UM. = O generally, as:—Epithalamium = epitalamio, gymnasium (college) = gimnazio, geranium = geranio.

-Y. = IO generally in words derived from Latin or Greek, as:—Philosophy = filozofio, astronomy = astronomio, sympathy (liking) = simpatio, industry = industrio.

(Gramatikaj Finiĝoj).

N.B.—There are three forms of participles, the adjectival, substantival, and adverbial. The one given above is the adjectival. In the adverbial form the final A is changed into E. Farante tion, li ... = By (in, or through) doing that, he ... To form the substantive, change A into O. La faranto = The doer (the person doing). These three forms are applicable to all the three participles in both the active and passive voices (see pars. 208–210).

54. The following lists of suffixes (31) and prefixes (7 in number) should be carefully studied, since innumerable words of the finest shade of meaning can be formed by their aid, in fact, they are the ground-work of the language. In cases where a suffix can be used as a root, the word it helps to form is given. The hyphens are used only to show the root, suffix, and grammatical termination of the examples. The student should form other words himself, and study the works of the best authors. (For remarks on suffixes and prefixes, see pars. 270–290.)

• -AĈ- Denotes badness of quality or condition (aĉ-a, vile, bad), (par. 271):

  dom-o, a house, dom-aĉ-o, a tumble-down house.

  ĉeval-o, a horse, ĉeval-aĉ-o, a sorry nag.

• -AD- Denotes the continuation of an action (par. 270):

  paf-o, a shot, or discharge, paf-ad-o, a firing, fusillade.

  ir-i, to go, ir-ad-i, to continue going.

• -AĴ- Denotes some real or concrete thing made from, or having the quality of, the root (aĵ-o, a thing), (par. 271):

  mola, soft, mol-aĵ-o, a soft thing, or substance.

  frukt-o, fruit, frukt-aĵ-o, jam.

• -AN- Denotes a member, inhabitant, or partisan (an-o, a member, etc.), (par. 272):

  vilaĝ-o, a village, vilaĝ-an-o, a villager.

  London-o, London, London-an-o, a Londoner.

• -AR- Denotes a collection of the idea implied in the root (ar-o, a collection, flock), (par. 273):

  arb-o, a tree, arb-ar-o, a wood.

  hom-o, a man, hom-ar-o, mankind.

• -ĈJ- These letters, substituted for one or more of the letters of a masculine name, make it an affectionate diminutive (par. 274):

  Petr-o, Peter, Pe-ĉj-o, Pete.

  Vilhelm-o, William, Vilhel-ĉj-o, Willie, Vilhe-ĉj-o, Will, Vil-ĉj-o, Billy, Vi-ĉj-o, Bill.

  For feminine names insert nj instead of ĉj (par. 274):

  Mari-o, Mary, Ma-nj-o, Polly.

  Helen-o, Helen, Hele-nj-o, Nelly, He-nj-o, Nell.

• -EBL- Denotes possibility, similar to the English terminations -able, -ible (ebl-a, possible, ebl-e, perhaps), (par. 275):

  leg-i, to read, leg-ebl-a, legible.

  tra-vid-i, to see through, tra-vid-ebl-a, transparent.

• -EC- Denotes an abstract quality of the idea conveyed in the root, like the English terminations -ness, -tude, -ity (ec-o, a distinctive mark, or quality), (par. 271):

  bon-a, good, bon-ec-o, goodness.

  riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-ec-o, wealth.

• -EDZ- Denotes a married person (edz-o, a husband), (par. 276):

  doktor-o, a doctor, doktor-edz-in-o, a doctor’s wife, lav-ist-in-o, a washerwoman, lav-ist-in-edz-o, a washerwoman’s husband.

• -EG- Denotes augmentation, intensity of degree (eg-a, intense, eg-ec-o, intensity), (par. 277):

  grand-a, great, grand-eg-a, enormous.

  pord-o, a door, pord-eg-o, a portal, outer-door.

• -EJ- Denotes the place specially used for, or allotted to, the idea implied in the root (ej-o, place, location), (par. 278):

  preĝ-i, to pray, preĝ-ej-o, a church.

  tomb-o, a grave, tomb, tomb-ej-o, a graveyard, cemetery.

• -EM- Denotes propensity, inclination, disposition (em-o, a disposition, bias, tendency), (par. 275):

  babil-i, to chatter, babil-em-a, chattering.

  pac-o, peace, pac-em-a, inclined to peace, peaceful.

• -ER- Denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment (er-o, an item), (par. 273):

  sabl-o, sand, sabl-er-o, a grain of sand.

  mon-o, money, mon-er-o, a coin.

• -ESTR- Denotes a chief, leader, ruler, or head of (estr-o, a chief), (par. 272):

  ŝip-o, a ship, ŝip-estr-o, a captain of a ship.

  imperi-o, an empire, imperi-estr-o, an emperor.

• -ET- Denotes diminution of degree (et-a, little, small), (par. 277):

  mont-o, a mountain, mont-et-o, a hill.

  rid-i, to laugh, rid-et-i, to smile.

• -ID- Denotes the young of, offspring, descendant (id-o, offspring), (par. 279):

  ŝaf-o, a sheep, ŝaf-id-o, a lamb.

  Izrael-o, Israel, Izrael-id-o, an Israelite.

• -IG- Denotes the causing, making, or rendering anything to be in the state implied by the root (ig-i, to cause, to make), (par. 280):

  mort-i, to die, mort-ig-i, to kill.

  pur-a, clean, pur-ig-i, to clean, purify.

• -IĜ- Denotes the action of becoming, turning to, and has sometimes a reflexive force (iĝ-i, to become, to be made), (par. 280):

  ruĝ-a, red, ruĝ-iĝ-i, to become red, to blush.

  riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-iĝ-i, to become, or grow rich, or to get rich.

• -IL- Denotes the tool or instrument or means by which something is done (il-o, a tool, means), (par. 281):

  tranĉ-i, to cut, tranĉ-il-o, a knife.

  pres-i, to print, pres-il-o, a printing press.

• -IN- Denotes the feminine gender (in-o, a female), (par. 282):

  frat-o, a brother, frat-in-o, a sister.

  leon-o, a lion, leon-in-o, a lioness.

• -IND- Denotes worthiness, deserving of something, worthy of (ind-o, worth, merit), (par. 275):

  laŭd-i, to praise, laŭd-ind-a, praiseworthy.

  estim-o, esteem, estim-ind-a, estimable, worthy of esteem.

• -ING- Denotes a thing used for holding only one object (ing-o, a socket, or sheath), (par. 278):

  plum-o, a pen, plum-ing-o, a penholder.

  kandel-o, a candle, kandel-ing-o, a candlestick.

• -ISM- Denotes a theory, system, doctrine, school of thought (ism-o, an "ism"), (par. 293):

  real-a, real, real-ism-o, realism.

  protestant-o, a protestant, protestant-ism-o, protestantism.

• -IST- Denotes a person occupied with the idea contained in the root (par. 272):

  drog-o, a drug, drog-ist-o, a druggist.

  ŝtel-i, to steal, ŝtel-ist-o, a thief.

• -NJ- See ĈJ, page 29, and par. 274.

• -OBL- Denotes a numeral multiple (par. 284):

  du, two, du-obl-a, double.

  tri, three, tri-obl-a, triple.

• -ON- Denotes a numeral fraction (par. 284):

  kvar, four, kvar-on-o, a fourth.

  kvin, five, kvin-on-o, a fifth.

• -OP- Denotes a numeral collective (op-a, collective), (par. 284):

  du, two, du-op-e, by twos.

  dek, ten, dek-op-e, by tens, ten together.

• -UJ- Denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears, a quantity or more than one article (uj-o, a receptacle), (par. 278):

  ink-o, ink, ink-uj-o, an inkpot.

  plum-o, a pen, plum-uj-o, a pen box (not a penholder).

  turk-o, a Turk, Turk-uj-o, Turkey.

• -UL- Denotes a person or being characterized by the idea implied in the root (par. 272):

  riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-ul-o, a rich man.

  avar-a, avaricious, avar-ul-o, a miser.

• -UM- Has no defined meaning. The meaning of a word with um is suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. It is rarely used (par. 285):

  kol-o, a neck, kol-um-o, a collar.

  plen-a, full, plen-um-i, to fulfil.

  man-o, a hand, man-um-o, a cuff.

55. LIST OF PREFIXES (Prefiksoj).

• BO- Denotes any relationship resulting from marriage (par. 286):

  patro, a father, bo-patro, a father-in-law.

  filino, a daughter, bo-filino, a daughter-in-law.

• DIS- Denotes division, dissemination, separation, etc., (dis-e, separately), (par. 287):

  ĵeti, to throw, dis-ĵeti, to throw about, to scatter.

  ŝiri, to tear, dis-ŝiri, to tear in pieces.

• EK- Denotes the beginning of an action, or its short duration (par. 288):

  kanti, to sing, ek-kanti, to begin to sing.

  brili, to shine, ek-brili, to flash.

• EKS- Denotes late, formerly, like the English ex-.

  kolonelo, colonel, eks-kolonelo, ex-colonel.

  edziĝo, a wedding, eks-edziĝo, a divorce.

• GE- Denotes persons of both sexes taken together (par. 286):

  patro, a father, ge-patroj, parents, or father and mother.

  mastro, a master, ge-mastroj, master and mistress.

• MAL- Denotes the direct opposite of any idea (mal-e, on the contrary), (par. 289):

  forta, strong, mal-forta, weak.

  estimi, to esteem, mal-estimi, to despise.

• MIS- Denotes mis-, amiss, wrongly, erroneously.

• RE- Denotes, as in English, repetition, again, back (re-e, again), (par. 290):

  iri, to go, re-iri, to go again.

  diri, to say, re-diri, to repeat.

55 (a). PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER ROOTS USED AS PREFIXES.

On reference to par. 254, it will be seen that prepositions are frequently used as prefixes. A good many other particles also are used in the same way, e.g.:—

• ĈEF par. 272 (g)
• DUON par. 286
• FI par. 270
• FOR par. 287
• FUŜ par. 270
• MEM par. 291
• SIN par. 291
• PRA par. 286
• VIC par. 292

56. Elision is not common in Esperanto, except in poetry, where it is used, when required, for the purpose of rhythm. Some prose writers use it, but it is better to avoid its use.

57. The letter A in the article la may be elided when the article is preceded by a preposition ending in a vowel, for then the L of the article can be sounded with the preposition and the full pronunciation given to the first letter of the following word, e.g., de l’ kreo de l’ mondo (for de la) = since the creation of the world. (Pronounce de l’ as del).

In poetry the letter A of the article is occasionally elided before a word beginning with a vowel.

The final O of the substantive may also be elided, e.g., kant’ (for kanto) = a song. The tonic accent (par. 17) remains on the same syllable on which it would fall if no elision had taken place.

Note that kant’ may not be used as an abbreviation of anything else but kanto. Thus, it cannot represent kanton, kantoj, kante, kantas, etc.

The dropped letter is in all cases noted by an apostrophe.

58. Questions are asked in two ways, viz.—either by the interrogative adverb ĉu = whether, or by one of the interrogative words kia = what kind of, kial = why, kiam = when, kie = where, kiel = how, kies = whose, kio = what, kiom = how much, or how many, kiu = who, which.

(a). Ĉu is used when none of the other words in a sentence are used in an interrogative sense. It is, in fact, the general word for interrogations answerable by "yes" or "no."

Examples.—Ĉu vi komprenas? = Do you understand? Ĉu li legas? = Does he read? Ĉu vi havas mian libron? = Have you my book? Ĉu vi havas tion, kion mi bezonas? = Have you what (that which) I want? Ĉu Johano iris lernejon? (or, al lernejo?) = Did John go (or, has John gone) to school? Ĉu vi pruntos al mi krajonon? = Will you lend me a pencil? Ĉu li estos foririnta, antaŭ ol vi alvenos? = Will he have gone away before you (will) arrive? Ĉu vi estus tion farinta, se mi estus tie? = Would you have done that if I had been there?

When the verb following ĉu is in the Imperative mood, it shows the ellipsis of some other verb expressing "wish, desire, etc." (see pars. 200, 237 (m)).

Examples.—Ĉu mi iru kaj kunpremu la gorĝon de tiu ĉi hundo...? (Zamenhof, "La Rabistoj") = Shall I go and squeeze the throat of this dog...? Here the full phrase would be, Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru...? = Do you wish me to go...? Ĉu mi aĉetu por vi libron? = Shall I buy you a book? Ĉu ni luu fiakron? = Shall we take a cab?

The verb is sometimes omitted when a question is preceded by an assertion.

Examples.—Hodiaŭ estas merkredo, ĉu ne? (or, ĉu ne vere?) = To-day is Wednesday, isn’t it? Ili diris al vi la veron, ĉu ne? = They told you the truth, didn’t they? Ili ne diris al vi la veron, ĉu? = They didn’t tell you the truth, did they?

(b). The following examples show the use of the nine interrogatives kia, kial, kiam, etc.

Examples.—Kian leteron vi skribis? = What kind of letter did you write? Kial vi ne respondis? Why did you not answer? Kiam li alvenos? = When will he come? Kie estas la poŝtoficejo? = Where is the post-office? Kiel vi faris tion? = How did you do that? Kies domo estas tiu? = Whose house is that? Kion vi konsilas al mi fari? = What do you advise me to do? Kiom da ĉevaloj estas tie? = How many horses are there? (at that place)? Kiom kostas tio? = How much does that cost? Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? = Who is in the garden? Kiun vi vidis en la preĝejo? = Whom did you see in the church? Kiu estas tie? = Who is there?

(c). Of the above, those ending in a consonant are invariable. Those ending in a vowel can take the accusative N, but kia and kiu are the only words which take the plural J (par. 142).

Examples.—Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going? Kiajn tranĉilojn vi bezonas? = What kind of knives do you need? Kiujn librojn vi aĉetis? = Which books did you buy? Kiuj estas la tagoj de la semajno? = Which are the days of the week?

(d). From kiom the adjective kioma = how much, how many’th is formed, and this also may be used as an interrogative.

Example.—Je kioma horo vi venos? = At what o’clock (hour) will you come?

(See correlative words, pars. 147–157. For further examples see pars. 64, 170. For place of interrogative see par. 91.)

59. Double negatives are hardly ever used in Esperanto, for, if employed, they would, as in English, have an affirmative meaning.

(a). Ne = no, not, is the word in general use to imply negation. It immediately precedes the word or words it modifies.

Examples.—Ĉu vi ne vidis lin? = Did you not see him? Mi devas ne iri = I must not go.[11] Mi ne devas iri = I am not obliged to go.[11] Ne mi, sed li, havas katon = It is not I, but he, who has a cat. Mi ne havas katon = I have not (got) a cat.

(b). The nine correlative words, nenia, nenial, neniam, nenie, neniel, nenies, nenio, neniom, neniu, also imply negation.

Examples.—Li havas nenian sperton = He has no kind of experience. Li ne havas ian sperton = He has not any kind of experience. Nenial li subite foriris de Londono = For no reason he suddenly left London. Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing. Mi ne trovis ion (ion, not nenion, here) = I did not find anything. (See correlative words, pars. 147–157).

(c). Nek = nor and nek ... nek = neither ... nor have also a negative meaning.

Examples.—Nek mi nek li estis tie = Neither I nor he was there. Mi vidis nek Johanon nek Georgon = I saw neither John nor George.

Nek is generally used in the second clause of a sentence, although the first is negative.

Examples.—Mi ne scias la francan lingvon, nek la anglan, nek la turkan = I do not know the French language, or (nor) English, or (nor) Turkish. Nenio estas al mi pli kara, nek dolĉa, ol vi = Nothing is dearer to me or (nor) sweeter than you. Mi ne renkontis lin, nek lian fraton = I did not meet him or (nor) his brother.

(d). Compound words with ne, sen, mal, have also a negative signification, and such words are often employed with a negative to express an affirmative assertion. (See par. 289.)

Examples.—La okazo ne estis neatendita = The event was not unexpected. Lia riĉeco ne estis senlima = His fortune was not unlimited. Li ne estis malhonesta = He was not dishonest.