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The Leardo Map of the World, 1452 or 1453 / In the Collections of the American Geographical Society

Chapter 16: III. India
By John Kirtland Wright
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About This Book

The author presents a close study and color reproduction of a mid-fifteenth-century Venetian world map by Giovanni Leardo, transcribing its calendar and inscription and describing the map disk. He surveys Leardo’s sources and interprets regional depictions of Asia, Africa, the Mediterranean, and Europe, with attention to place names, coastlines, and medieval cartographic conventions. Extensive notes and an appendix provide detailed, section-by-section commentary on individual regions and features. A final technical note outlines the processes and considerations involved in reproducing the original map for the volume.

[3]The map was discovered in 1879 by Major Friedrich von Pilat, Imperial Counsellor of the Austro-Hungarian Legation and Consul-General of Austria-Hungary in Venice. At the time it was presented to the Society a brief anonymous description appeared in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. 38, 1906, pp. 365-368. This was based upon a sixteen-page pamphlet by Dr. Guglielmo Berchet, Il planisfero di Giovanni Leardo dell’ anno 1452, Venice, 1880, accompanying a photographic facsimile constituting No. XIV of the series Raccolta di mappamondi e carte nautiche del XIII al XVI secolo published by Ferdinand Ongania, Venice. Dr. Berchet’s paper, while useful to the present writer, has on the whole proved disappointing because of its many inaccuracies in transcriptions and also because almost no attempt was made to deal with the place names, in many respects the most interesting features of all.
[4]As much of this digit as remains might be the upper part of either a 2, a 3, or a 7. Since the Easter calendar begins with 1453 the date could hardly be earlier than Easter, 1452. For the same reason, it is not likely to have been as late as 1457, the only possible date after 1453. On the Vicenza Leardo map the Easter calendar begins with the year in which the map is dated, 1448; on the Verona map of 1442 the calendar begins with the preceding year, 1441. A discrepancy of four years between the beginning of the calendar and the date of the map, however, is most improbable.

Santarem, Vol. 3, p. 399, and Berchet, op. cit., p. 6, cite two mid-eighteenth century MSS in the Library of St. Mark’s, Venice, which contain entries relating to a map by Giovanni Leardo dated 1447. One of these MS is that of the Doge Marco Foscarini (Codex ital., XI, 123, p. 42), the other that of a contemporary scholar, Giovanni degli Agostini (Codex ital., VII, 291, p. 542; this and the preceding reference were furnished to the present writer by the Chief Librarian of the Library of St. Mark’s; they do not agree exactly with the references as given by Santarem and Berchet).

The passage from the Foscarini MS (Fig. 2) may be translated thus: “Gio. Leardo, who flourished in 1440, made a planisphere on parchment on which was written Leardius de Venetiis me fecit anno 1447. It was at the house of (era presso) Bernardo Trevisano. Apostolo Zeno saw it many times and marveled at seeing the exactness of the design.” The passage from the Agostini MS (Fig. 3) runs as follows: “Giovanni Leardo: This (man) lived shortly before the middle of the fifteenth century, and he delighted in geography and spheres. In the Trevisan Library was preserved a planisphere by him on parchment on which could be seen delineated the whole terraqueous globe with all the signs and celestial constellations, beneath which, according to his assertion, every part is placed. At the bottom of this parchment these words may be read: Joannes Leardius de Venetiis me fecit ab anno 1447. It is curious to see how in his time, when not many discoveries had been made and navigation was so little advanced, the positions of the provinces and of the seas were conceived.”

Berchet, op. cit., p. 7, points out that the arms at the top of the parchment of the Leardo map now belonging to the American Geographical Society are those of the Trevisan house. He reads incorrectly, however, the date given by Agostini as 1452, concluding therefrom that the map mentioned by the latter was the same as the Society’s map, the date of which he also reads as 1452. In view of the actual difference in the dates, we may conclude that Leardo constructed two maps for the Trevisan family, and that the one dated 1447 is yet to be rediscovered.

Figs. 2 and 3—Passages from mid-eighteenth century manuscripts in the Library of St. Mark’s, Venice, in which reference is made to a map by Giovanni Leardo, dated 1447. See note 4.

Fig. 2—from manuscript of the Doge Marco Foscarini.

Fig. 3—from manuscript of Giovanni Agostini.

[5]Although the Society’s map is not, perhaps, one of the great, outstanding monuments of medieval cartography, the assertion of Theobald Fischer (Sammlung mittelalterlicher Welt- und Seekarten, Venice, 1886, p. 104) that the Leardo maps of 1448 and 1452 were “von geringem Wert,” seems too harsh.
[6]There follows a transcription of this legend. Missing passages supplied from the Vicenza map as transcribed on Santarem’s reproduction are given in square brackets:

... chreatore de Tute le Cose chreate et non chreato et E En 3 persone et una medexima sustanzia et uno Idio El quale En .i.inita (divinita?) E Incomprensibelle aiomeni et aianzelli quanti uisono dal zentro per sino Ala zirconferenzia En umanita ... | ... ene Maria et farsi homo pasibelle et sostener morte per Redimer Lumana zenerazione et resusito Il Terzo zorno et asexe ... (en?) ziello ala destera del padre et al nouisimo di zudigera zusti et pechatori. Al nome de quel dio che cosi veramente chre ... at|

... como La Tera et le Ixole stano nel mare et Molte prouinzie et monti et fiumi prenzipalli sono nela Tera El diamitro dela Tera sie meglia 6857 secondo Macobrio ezelentisimo Astrologo et geumetrico. El diamitro de Laqua| [sie meia 14796. El diametro de laiere sie m]eglia 31929¹/₇. E diamitro del fuoguo 68191²/₇. El diamitro de La Luna sie meglia 147149. El diamitro de mercurio sie meia 20(?)7533. El diamitro de venus sie meglia 692703. El diamitro del solle sie meia 1494781. El diamitro de mar(te) |... eia 6532374¹/₇ (Jupiter). El diamitro de saturno sie Meia 13997942⁴/₇. diamitrus horbis signiorum sie meia 29995591. diamitrus horbis aplanes sie meia 64276266⁵/₇. diamitrus horbis christalini sie meia 137724(?)856. pitagora dize che da La |....

[El primo zircholo che zirconscrisse Il sopra schri]to mapamondo sie de la raxon de la pasqua de la Rexurezione per Ani 95. Comenza nel 1453 adi primo aprille conpie nel 1547 adi 10 Aprille. quando si Troua nele caxelle Letera M aueremo La pasqua de marzo, quando si Trouera Letera A Aueremo| [quando la viene daprille. quando si troua letera B que]lano aueremo Bixestro. El segondo zircolo sie de I12 mexi dellano et quando Il sole Entra En cadauno dei 12 segni zelesti. El Terzo zircollo sie de 19 Letere de lalfabeto per Atrouar la raxon de La Luna. El quarto zircollo sie dei numeri (?)| [di zorni de mexi. El quinto sie de le ore.] El sesto zircollo sie Iponti de le hore. El setimo zircollo sie Le Letere dominicale. Lotauo zircollo sie Le ore de La grandeza del di En tututo (sic!) El tenpo de lano (?). El nono zircolo sie dei menudi che auanza oltra Le ore ne la grandeza del di. El dezim |... uoler sapere quando rinoua La Luna de Zugnio del 1453. nel dito mileximo Abiamo per letera concorente Letera C. Auoler atrouar La conioncion de la Luna dobiamo Atrouar Letera C nel mexe de zugnio E alincotro se trouera di.. |... (rin) ouera La Luna de cadauno mexe del dito mileximo. El mileximo comenz(a) de Zenaro nel 1454 aueremo concorente Letera d ecosi se schore ogniano 1 Letera de lalfabeto. Et quando sizunze aletera T l’Altro ano drieto sitorna Aletera A. |... raxone comenza Ala Leuar del solle e intendese atanti di et Atante hore et atanti (?) ponti. ponti 1080 sintende 1 hora. Ale fiade En uno mexe si troua 2 fiade una Letera en quel mexe La luna rinoua 2 fiade etc.

[7]By the “diameters” of the sun, moon, and planets Leardo obviously means the diameters of the orbits. Macrobius, Commentaria in somnium Scipionis, I, 20: 20, gives the diameter of the earth as 80,000 stades, which might, if converted into Arabic miles, be approximately the 6857 miles of Leardo. According to Macrobius the radius of the sun’s orbit is 4,800,000 stades (ibid., I, 20: 21); the diameter of the sun’s orbit would therefore be 9,600,000 stades, or 120 times that of the earth. The diameter of the sun’s orbit according to Leardo is 218 times that of the earth. On the authority of Porphyry, Macrobius (ibid., II, 3: 14) gives the relative distances between the planets; but Leardo’s figures bear no relation to these. I have not been able as yet to trace the origin of Leardo’s figures.
[8]H. Grotefend, Zeitrechnung des deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, Vol. 1, Hannover, 1891, p. 203 (reference kindly suggested by Dom Hugh G. Bévenot of Weingarten Abbey, Württemberg, Germany).
[9]Grotefend, op. cit., p. 113, asserts that O was usually omitted to avoid confusion with zero. Leardo, however, includes O. J and I are counted as one letter. The golden number of 1453 is 10; Leardo’s A corresponds with golden number 8.
[10]The following is a comparison of the times of the new moon on certain dates as indicated by Leardo with the actual times as determined for the meridian of Venice from Th. von Oppolzer, Canon der Finsternisse (constituting Denkschr. Kaiserl. Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, Math.-naturw. Classe, Vol. 52, 1887).
Leardo’s Times Actual Times
1453 Dec. 1 ? hrs. 203? pts. Nov. 30 2.40 P. M.
1455 Apr. 16 21 hrs. ? Apr. 17 12.22 A. M.
1456 Apr. 6 7 hrs. 229 pts. Apr. 5 4.25 A. M.
1461 Jan. 11 21 hrs. ? Jan. 11 8.44 P. M.
1468 Feb. 23 14 hrs. 747 pts. Feb. 23 10.15 P. M.

The discrepancies are too great and too variable to enable us to come to any very definite conclusions as to the place or manner of origin of Leardo’s figures.

[11]The division of the hour into 1080 points (3×6×60, as Dom Bévenot points out) is puzzling. More usually the hour was subdivided into four points. See Grotefend, op. cit., p. 188.
[12]The dominical letter for 1453 was G.
[13]On the basis of certain of the figures given by Leardo for the lengths of the days at about the times of the solstices, I have estimated that this table was worked out for about lat. 42° 45′ N, which is more nearly the latitude of Orvieto than that of Venice (45° 30′). (This calculation was made with the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, 4th edit. (constituting Smithsonian Misc. Colls., Vol. 69, No. 1), Washington, 1918: Table 87, “Duration of Sunshine at Different Latitudes,” and Table 88, “Declination of the Sun for the Year 1899.” The difference in the declination of the sun for 1452 and 1899 is negligible.) Dom Bévenot writes: “I fancy day lengths were reckoned roughly for degrees. Here in Weingarten about 1490 they used tables drawn up for lat. 45° N, though the place is actually 47° 40′.”
[14]I am indebted to Dom Bévenot for the following comment:

“Concerning the calendar of saints I find the good Venetian has inserted besides the usual feast of St. Mark, patron of Venice, on April 25 two more: that of his apparition and the finding of his relics on June 25 and a third feast on Jan. 31 (translation). The last two were special for the diocese of Venice (Aquileia). The calendar for Aquileia is given at the beginning of Grotefend, op. cit., Vol. 1, but does not quite tally with Leardo’s list of saints. Perhaps this is because Grotefend has modernized the calendar. It may be that Leardo, living perhaps elsewhere than in Venice or its diocese, put in feasts that were dear to him. Indeed, in view of your findings for latitude from the length of the days [see preceding note], Rome is the most likely place, perhaps, for the Venetian embassy. It lies nearly in lat. 42° N; if we allow for Leardo measuring the length of the days according to the apparent sunset and sunrise, this may well explain a discrepancy of the greater part of a degree.”

[15]Berchet, op. cit., p. 7.
[16]See H. F. Lutz, Geographical Studies Among Babylonians and Egyptians, in Amer. Anthropologist, Vol. 26 (N.S.), 1924, pp. 160-174.
[17]See Appendix, Nos. 305, 619.
[18]Kretschmer, CE see p. 63.
[19]Particularly the famous Catalan Atlas of 1375 see p. 63.
[20]For the names of and for bibliographical references relating to some of these maps see the list of references on pp. 63-67, sub CD, Mauro, Piz., Vat., Vilad.
[21]This Latin translation of Ptolemy’s Geography was begun by the Byzantine scholar Emmanuel Chrysoloras and completed by Jacopus Angelus in 1410; manuscripts of this translation were accompanied by maps, which, however, differ from the well-known maps in the Ptolemaic atlases of the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The latter were the work of Dominus Nicolaus Germanus, known as Nicholas Donis. See A. E. Nordenskiöld, Facsimile Atlas to the Early History of Cartography, transl. by J. A. Ekelöf and Clements R. Markham, Stockholm, 1889, pp. 9-10.
[22]Like the Leardo map of 1452, the map of Walsperger, 1448, reveals Ptolemaic influence in some of its names although all the topographical features are strictly medieval. The Genoese world map of 1447 in its elliptical form is the result of a more serious attempt to reconcile the Ptolemaic geography with the traditional views. See Kretschmer, CE, pp. 76-77; on the Walsperger map, Kretschmer, Eine neue mittelalterliche Weltkarte der vatikanischen Bibliothek, in Zeitschr. Gesell. für Erdkunde zu Berlin, Vol. 26, 1891, pp. 371-406, reference on pp. 376-377. On the Genoese world map see the extended commentary of Fischer, op. cit., pp. 155-206.
[23]Kret., CE pp. 82-83.
[24]See Kret., Port., pp. 81-93; see also E. L. Stevenson, Portolan Charts: Their Origin and Characteristics, with a Descriptive List of those Belonging to the Hispanic Society of America, New York, 1911, p. 19, where it is suggested that the faulty orientation of the Mediterranean may be in part connected with the persistence since the time of Ptolemy of the practice of placing Constantinople on maps “too far to the north by at least two degrees.”

APPENDIX
DETAILED COMMENTS ON THE MAP

Explanation

The following commentary is divided into sections numbered with Roman numerals corresponding to the Roman numerals on the general key map (Fig. 4, at end of book). Each item is given an Arabic numeral which corresponds to the Arabic numerals on the detailed key maps (Figs. 5-10, at end of book).

For each feature which bears a place name and for each longer legend on the Leardo map the transcription is given below in italic. Many of these transcriptions, particularly of names written on edifices (castles, churches, etc.), are mere guesses, owing to the obscurity of the original. Particular difficulty was encountered in distinguishing between the letters a, e, o, c, and t, and between s and f. A clue to the reading of many names, however, was furnished by other maps contemporary with or earlier than that of Leardo. Illegible letters are indicated by dots; doubtful readings by (?); interpolated letters are enclosed in square brackets. Illeg. means “wholly illegible.”

No data beside the transcriptions are given for such names as f. tigris, corsicha, galizia, etc., the meaning of which is obvious.

In the case of the less familiar names, the forms in which they appear on certain other medieval maps are supplied. In general, if a name occurs on the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (CA), on the Catalan map in the Este Library at Modena (CE), or on the Ptolemaic maps (Ptol.), no attempt is made to indicate its occurrence elsewhere.

Each doubtful identification with a medieval name is preceded by ?. For names along the coast of the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Atlantic, references are given to the pages in Kretschmer’s Die italienischen Portolane des Mittelalters (= Kret., Port.) where the variant spellings of these names as they are found in the more important portolans and portolan charts are listed and the places identified with modern localities.

Identifications with modern localities are indicated by =, or =mod.; with well-known ancient localities by =anct. Suggested but doubtful identifications are preceded by =?, and names for which I have been unable to find or to suggest any identification with a modern locality are indicated by =? standing alone.

With the identification of Ptolemaic and medieval names in the Far East, in Africa, and in Scandinavia, we enter upon a hazardous and controversial field. While in many instances I have indicated identifications that have been made by competent scholars, needless to say, these should not be accepted as final. One cannot but feel that where an identification is based upon mere similarity in sound it is often a case of one man’s guess being as good as another’s. The scope and purpose of the present study does not permit of an exhaustive examination of these questions of detail.

For more complete bibliographical data relating to publications referred to in abbreviated form in the key and for an explanation of the abbreviations, see pp. 63-67. In bibliographical references volume numbers are indicated in lower case Roman, book numbers in upper case Roman, and chapter and page numbers in Arabic type.

On the key maps where there are long rows of place names the first and last numbers only are indicated, with an arrow connecting them. This is done to avoid overcrowding.

The Arabic numerals are in general placed in positions corresponding to those of the legends on the original. This leads in some instances to the separation of the numbers from the symbols to which they relate (e.g., 73).

I. Northern Asia

Mountains

1 Mo. alani: Alani Montes in Scythia intra Imaum Montem, NE of Caspian Sea, Ptol. (VI, 14: 3 (FA 22));=Mugodzhar hills in the Kirghiz steppes, a southern continuation of the Ural Mountains (PW, i, 1281).

2 Mo. ripei: Rhipaei Montes, in which the Don rises, between Sea of Azof and Baltic, Ptol. (III, 5:15 (FA 17)). See also 596 and PW, 2nd ser., i, 902-904.

3 Mo. norosus: Norossus Mons, NE of Caspian Sea, Ptol. (VI, 14:5 (FA 22)).

4 Mo. gaspio: Caspii Montes, between Greater Armenia and Media, Ptol. (V, 13:3 (FA20)); transferred to the far northeast as the haunt of Gog and Magog on medieval maps, including CA and CE. See Kret., CE, 202-206.

Rivers

5 f. Tanai: Tanais Fluvius, Ptol. (V, 9:1, etc. (FA17));=Don.

6 f. rumus: ?Rhymmus Fluvius, which enters the Caspian E of the Rha (Volga), Ptol. (VI, 14:2, 4 (FA22));=Volga.

7 f. ras: Rha Fluvius, Ptol. (V, 9:12, etc. (FA22)); see PW, 2nd ser., i, 1-8;=upper Volga.

8 Unnamed eastern tributary of the Ras;=Kama or Viatka.

Other Natural Features

9 zizera: Zizera, shown as an island on CD and CA;=the jazira or island of Peskov in the Volga near Tsaritsin (Yule, Cath., i, 308); Hamy (395) suggests Sizran.

10 dixerto de zornade | trenta (desert of thirty days). Marco Polo’s desert of Lop, said to take one month to cross (Polo, i, 196); a long inscription on CA in the same locality describes this desert and the devils’ voices heard in it. See 33.

11 On this gulf as it is shown on CE appears the legend: “On these islands there are many beautiful griffons and falcons, and the inhabitants of the islands do not venture to seize them without the permission of the Grand Khan, lord of the Tatars” (Kret., CE, 208; from Polo, i, 270).

Edifices

(A) North of the River Ras and its Eastern Tributary

12 zimachi|a(?): ?Sarmatia;=Russia. See also 600.

13 Tomb of the Grand Khan, beneath which an inscription reads thus: q ... li sie El sepulchro del | [gran can] et fano questa | ... che quando El uen | portato a sepelir El uen acom|pagniato da molti homeni | armadi Iquali ozideno queli(?) | Itrouano su le strade et | dicono che le anime de coloro sono Benede|te per che Le aconpa|gniano Lanima del gran | can aunaltra uita. Similar inscription in corresponding position on CE (209-210) from Polo (i, 246, 250-251).

14 Ro. de mas ... (?): ?Moscaor, CD;=Moscow (Hamy, 394).

15 cast. | ra.(?): ?Castrama, CA; Castrema, CE;=Kostroma (Hamy, 395).

16 ezina(?): ?duplicate of 18.

17 alla ... (?): ?Allania, N of Black Sea, CA;=country of the Alans (Hallb., 13, 14). See also 604.

18 etzi|na: Polo (i, 223-225); Cordier (Ser M. P., 53-55) places Polo’s Etzina in SW Mongolia, “on the river Hei-shui, called Etsina [=Etsin Gol] by the Mongols.” See also 16.

(B) Between the Rivers Ras, Rumus, and Tanai

19 trachia: Torachi, CA;=Torjok (Hamy, 395).

20 tufer: Tifer, CA;=Tver, capital of an important Russian principality and seat of a bishop in the Middle Ages.

21 botnia(?):=?Bothnia; ?duplicate of 608.

22 zitere|ae(?): ?[Ar]çetreca, Vat.;=Astrakhan (Pullé, Vat., 8).

23 racoba(?): =?

(C) South Side of East Branch of River Rumus

24 borga: Borgar, CA; Bolgara, Polo (i, 4, 6-8);=med. Bolghar, on the Volga 90 m. below Kazan (Yule, Polo, i, 7).

25 Iornâ: Ioram, CA;=?Churmansk (Shurminsk) on the Viatka (Yule, Cath., i, 307).

26 paschati(?): Pascherti, CA;=Bashkir. See Hallb., 69-70; Yule, Polo, ii, 492.

27 fasa(?): Fachatim, CA; =?Viatka (Yule, Cath., i, 307).

28 sebur(?): Sebur, CA;=?Sibir, Siberia. See Hallb., 465-466; Yule, Cath., i, 307.

(D) North and Northeast of Mt. Gaspio

29 Marm|orea: Marmorea, CA;=? See Yule, Cath., i, 308.

30 la ... |te(?):=?

31 fugur(?): Sugur, CA. See Hallb., 489;=?

32 zin.. |lel(?): Cigicalas, CA; ?Province of Chingintalas, Polo, (i, 212-213);=?region between Lake Baikal and Kamul (Yule, Polo, i, 214-215; Cordier, Ser M. P., 51-52).

33 Lop: On CA Ciutat de Lop N of Lake Yssicol; also a long legend (from Polo, i, 196-197) describing Lop as a city where travelers rest themselves and their beasts and supply themselves with provisions before crossing the desert. See Hallb., 316-318;=vicinity of Lob Nor between Chinese Turkestan and the Gobi. See also 10.

34 findaz|ion: ?Sindachu, Polo (i, 285); Sinacius, CA;=modern Hsüan-hua, not far from Kalgan on the Great Wall (Yule, Polo, i, 295).

(E) Row West and South of the Gulf of the Three Islands

35 canp|iton: Campicion, Polo (Pauthier’s edit., i, 165); Campichu, Polo (Yule’s edit., i, 219); Campicion=Chancjo of CA (Cordier, CA, 35);=?Kan-chou in Kan-su (Yule, Polo, i, 220; Pauthier, l. c.; Cordier, l. c.; see also Hallb., 107).

36 sia ... r(?):?Siacur, CA;=?

37 tand|uc: Tanduch, CA; Tanduc or Tenduc was the name of a plain, a province, and a city belonging to Prester John; in the province was the country of Gog and Magog (Polo, i, 240, 284);=? See Yule, Polo, i, 285-288; Paul Pelliot in Journ. Asiatique, May-June, 1922, pp. 595-596.

38 suchc|hur(?): ?Sukchur in Tangut, Polo (i, 217);=Su-chou in Kan-su (Yule, Polo, i, 218).

39 rabo|.ibi(?):=?

40 tign|infor: ?Chingianfu, Polo (ii, 176-177);=Chinkiang-fu (Yule, Polo, ii, 177-178).

Legend Between Rivers Ras and Tanai

41 Idolatri: On CE a legend applying to city of Castrema (see 15) explains that idolaters there worship a metal idol without head or hands (Kret., CE, 210).

II. Far Eastern Asia

The surface of the map northwest of the Terrestrial Paradise has been rubbed in such a way that many of the names are illegible.

Mountains

The mountain system here corresponds essentially with that of CE; Ptolemaic names have been given to mountains and rivers.

42 sa ... s(?):=?

43 Mo. osmire(?): Asmiraei Montes in Serica, Ptol. (VI, 16: 2 (FA23));=?eastern end of T‘ien Shan with the small low hill chains to the south (PW, ii, 1702).

44 Mo. Tagurus: Tagurus Mons in Serica (Θάγουρον ὄρος), Ptol., l. c.

45 Mo. otorocoras: Ottorocoras Mons in Serica (ibid.).

46 Mo. semantinus: Semanthini Montes in India intra Gangem, Ptol. (VII, 2:8 (FA26));=?coast range of Annam (PW, iv, 2050; see also Gerini, 376).

47 Mo. anibi: Annibi Montes, Ptol. (VI, 16:2 (FA23));=?eastern T‘ien Shan above Qara Shar and Turfan (PW, i, 2258).

48 Mo. Tanacomedo: ?[Mon-]Tana Comedo [rum] (ἣ ὀρεινὴ Κωμηδών) in Sogdiana, Ptol. (VI, 12: 3 (FA22)).

Rivers

No rivers are shown in this region on either CA or CE; Leardo was evidently impelled to add them by the study of Ptolemy’s Geography.

49 f. ocardis: Oechardes Fl. of Serica, Ptol. (VI, 16: 3 (FA23)).

50 f...(?)=?

51 f. danas: Demus Fl. of Sogdiana, a branch of the Jaxartes (see 117), Ptol. (VI, 12: 3 (FA22)).

52 f. bascatis: Bascatis Fl. of Sogdiana, also a branch of the Jaxartes (ibid.).

Lake

53 Illeg.: Lacus Issicol, Leardo, 1448; Yssicol, CA;=?either Lake Balkash or Issiq Köl (Hallb., 563-564).

Edifices

(A) Northwest of the Terrestrial Paradise

54 sachai: ?Sacae, Ptol. (VI, 13 (FA22)).

55 s ... de | iaca(?): =?

56-62 All illeg.

63 PARADIXO TERESTO: The Terrestrial Paradise is placed in Africa on the earlier Leardo maps as well as on CE. See Wright, Lore, 261-263.

(B) West of Terrestrial Paradise

64 sina: ?Sinae, Ptol. (VII, 3 (FA26));=China (see Wright, op. cit., 271).

65 Ro de ...|.ge(?): =?

66 Tango | ... ti(?): ?Tangut, Polo (i, 203-205);=Kansu and southern Mongolia (Hallb., 507-508).

67 Ro Tarse: CA and CE have legends to the effect that from Tarsia came the three Magi (Kret., CE, 197-198; Hallb., 515-517, 267-268);=vicinity of the T‘ien Shan (Hallb., l.c.);=eastern Turkestan (Kret., l.c.).

Place Names

68 pinca(?): ?Pinzu, Mauro (Zurla, 36; name omitted on Santarem’s copy of Mauro map in his Atlas, 45); ?Piju, Polo (ii, 141; see Hallb., 409);=P‘ei-chou (Yule, Polo, l.c.).

69 ruoenci(?):=?

Longer Inscriptions

70 prouinzia de og magog doue | foron(?) serati molti Trib ... de | Judei (province of Gog and Magog where many tribes of Jews were enclosed): Related legends on CA (Buchon and Tastu, 145-146) and CE (Kret., CE, 202-206); see Hallb., 260-265. On legend of Gog and Magog see also Wright, Lore, 287-288.

71 Idolatri: A reflection of the idolaters of the Grand Khan’s domains frequently mentioned by Marco Polo.

72 porte de fero: The iron gates erected by Alexander the Great to enclose Gog and Magog, shown on CE; see 70.

73 statoe de alesandro: The statues of trumpeters set up by Alexander to keep guard over Gog and Magog, shown on CA and CE; see 70.

74 dixerto doue eno | molti grifoni: Griffons were placed in Scythia by many classical and medieval writers; see Hallb., 232-234.

75 qu ... si manza | carne de omo (here they eat the flesh of man); Cannibals were placed in these regions by many classical and medieval writers; they were often associated with Gog and Magog; see Hallb., 30-32.

III. India

Mountain

76 Mo. meandrus: Maeandrus Mons in Farther India, Ptol. (VII, 2:8 (FA26));=?Mahudaung mountains in Upper Burma (Gerini, 51, 832). No corresponding mountain shown on either CA or CE.

Rivers

The river system is more elaborate than, although somewhat analogous in its general pattern to, that of CA and CE. The Indus and its branches seem to be lacking on the Catalan maps. I am unable to trace the origin of several of the river names.

77 f. priolada:=?

78 f. tindarus:=?

79 f. masa|rus:=?

80 f. sumas:=?

81 f. bindas: Bindas Fl. of India intra Gangem Fluvium (Ptol., VII, 1, 6 (FA25)); possibly the name is related to that of Bhiwandi near Bassein, N of Bombay (Tomaschek, in PW, iii, 268-269).

82 f. madus: Namadus Fl. of India intra Gangem Fluvium, Ptol. (VII, 1:5 (FA25)).

83 f. amarus: Amarus is given as another name for the Indus on Vat. (Pullé, Vat., 16-17); no Amarus Fl. in Ptol.

84 f. Indicus: The course of the Indus as Leardo draws it is derived from Ptol. (VII, 1:2 (FA25)).

Edifices

85 predon | corcon(?): =?

86 terisin|ti(?): =?

87 zatin(?): ?Zayton, CA; Zaytom, CE; Zayton, Polo (ii, 234-237), an important medieval Chinese seaport;=? See Yule, Polo, ii, 237-242; Cordier, CA, 48-49.

88 cansai(?): Ciutat de Cansay, CA; Kinsay, Polo (ii, 185-193, 200-208, 215-216);=Hangchow (Yule, Polo, ii, 193; Cordier, CA, 41-42).

89 India.

90 Ro de col|onbi: Pruuinesa Columbo, CA; Coilum, Polo (ii, 375-376); see Hallb., 153-156;=Quilon (Yule, Polo, ii, 377-380).

91 balesan: Balaxan (Polo, Ramusio’s edit., 1583, according to Hallb., 62); Cjutat de Baldassia, CA; Baldacia, CE;=Badakshan (see Yule, Polo, i, 157-163).

92 taseta: ?Rey del Tauris, CA; Rey Tauris, CE;=Tabriz (Hallb., 518-522).

Place Names on Coast

93 penta: Penta, next place E of Bangala, CA; Pentam, an island, Polo (ii, 280); see also Hallb., 411-413;=Bintan (Yule, Polo, ii, 280);=“the Be-Tumah (Island) of the Arab Navigators, the Tamasak Island of the Malays; and, in short, the Singapore Island of our day” (G. E. Gerini, in Journ. Royal Asiatic Soc., July, 1905, p. 509; see also Cordier, Ser M. P., 105); Gerini, 740, suggests that Penta of CA “might have been the historical continuation of the Ptolemaic” Pentapolis (Ptol., VII, 2:2), which he places near the mouth of the Chittagong, at the head of the Bay of Bengal.

94 taine: ‘cjutat de cayna | acj finis catayo,’ CA; see Cordier, CA, 39.

95 bangala: Bangala, CA; Polo (ii, 98-99);=Bengal.

96 ianpa: Janpa, CA; Chamba, Polo (ii, 266-268); see Hallb., 173-174;=Annamite coast (Cordier, in Yule, Polo, ii, 270);=C‘ha-ban, the ancient Cham capital (Gerini, 240).

97 ligo: Lingo, CA; ?Locac, Polo (ii, 276) (this identification suggested by Pullé, CE, 46);=?Siam, Borneo, or Malay Peninsula (see Yule, Polo, ii, 277-280; Hallb., 486; Cordier, Ser M. P., 104-105).

98 macabin: ?Mahabar, Mauro; Maabar, Polo (ii. 331-332);=Coromandel Coast (Hallb., 320-323).

99 gr ... (?): =?

100 darsi: =?

101 caruzia: =?

102 butifilli: Butifilis, CA; Mutfili, Polo (ii, 362);=Motupalli (Yule, Polo., ii, 362).

103 caclur(?): =?

104 coluto: =Quilon (see also 90).

105 cormos: ?Hormuz (see 158) misplaced: “The c is constantly substituted for an aspirate by the Italian travellers (e.g. Polo’s Cormos for Hormuz)” (Yule, Cath., ii, 242). See Hallb., 242-246;=Ormuz.

106 elli: Elly, CA; Ely, Polo (ii, 385-386);=Mt. D’Eli or Delly (Yule, Cath., iv, 74-75).

107 maganor: Manganor, CA;=Mangalore (Yule, Cath. iv, 73).

108 diegei: Diogil in interior of India, CA;=Deogiri, med. name of Daulatabad (see Yule, Cath. i, 310; iv, 21).

109 cora: ?Cory Promontorium, Ptol. (VII, 1:11(FA25));=Cape Calymere (E. H. Bunbury, A History of Ancient Geography (2 vols., London, 1879), ii, 474).

110 pez.mor(?): Pescamor, CA;=“perhaps Barçelor” (Yule, Cath., i, 309; iv, 73).

111 zitabor: Chintabor, CA;=St. John’s Point (Yule, Cath., i, 309; iv, 64-65).

112 parzinar(?): Paychinor, CA;=Barkur (Yule, Cath., i. 309; iv, 73).

Longer Inscriptions

113 qui predico | san Tom|axo (here preached St. Thomas): On the traditions regarding St. Thomas in India see Yule, Polo, ii. 353-359; Wright, Lore, 74, 272, 275, 279.

114 qui nase|le noxe | dindia (here grow the nuts of India): In the Ramusian version of Polo (ii, 354) occurs the following statement in connection with the shrine of St. Thomas: “The Christians who have charge of the church have a great number of Indian Nut trees, whereby they get their living.”

115 India dixer|ta.