The Raisin Industry / A practical treatise on the raisin grapes, their history, culture and curing

Hoeing.

—Only little manual cultivation is needed. In the spring, after the first plowing and before the buds have started or have grown long enough to interfere with the work, the vines should be hoed. The object of hoeing is to loosen the soil nearest the vines, and to destroy all the weeds which cannot be turned under by the plow, and especially those which grow close to the vines. The best tool for this purpose is the common, heavy hoe with a long handle. A very useful hoe can be made of old shovels which are so worn and broken that they cannot be longer used for digging. The blade of the shovel is fixed to a new handle at a right angle, similar to a hoe handle, while the blade itself is left as it is. Such hoes are very useful in cutting heavy weeds, and work with great facility. Forked hoes are used by many vineyardmen, especially for stirring the hardened crust around the vine, but I believe the common, heavy hoe a more useful instrument, and if used in time will make the forked hoe unnecessary.

Time for Cultivation.

—Too early plowing or cultivation before the weeds have started is not always desirable, as it prevents the weeds from growing. Such weeds, if turned under, will yearly enrich the land, and in course of time form a heavy and humus-rich top soil, which will serve to keep the moisture in the soil below. I therefore advocate plowing as late as possible. The exact time must be decided for every particular season and for every separate locality, and no general rule can be given. Wet lands should be plowed earlier than dry lands; it is the latter which especially require the green weeds to be turned under, and which will be the most benefited by the accumulation of humus. Our vineyardists disregard this fact too much, and are generally too apt to plow their dryest lands first.

GRAFTING THE MUSCAT ON OTHER STOCKS.

Time for Grafting Raisin-vines.

—The best time for grafting grapevines, as well as for grafting anything else, is when the stock on which we graft has its sap in circulation, and when the scions or cuttings which we are to insert in the stock are yet dormant. This time occurs from the middle of January, when the sap first rises in the old vine, and continues to March or even April, February and March being generally the months best suited to the work. Grafting may also be done in the fall of the year after the grape crop has been gathered, while some growers have best succeeded still earlier, and advocate the month of August as being the most favorable time for this process. The sap at that time ceases flowing, and there is no danger of its being clogged. Grapevines can be grafted at almost any time of the year at which the weather is not too warm, as this will cause the cuttings to bud out before they have joined the stock. If grafting on resistant stocks is desired, the stocks, if small, must first be dug, and the grafting can then be performed in the workshop any time between December and March, the early winter months being preferable.

Points to be Observed in Grafting.

—The main object in grafting is to properly join the scions and the stock. The point of junction should be the cambium layer, or what is commonly called the inner bark. If a cutting of a vine is cut off smoothly and placed in the ground, the callus soon begins to form at the lower end. This callus, which is seen to exude from the green layer between the hard wood and the bark, is fed by the sap in the cutting descending through the cambium layer and forming new cells at its free end. If this callus joins a similar callus of the cambium or green layer of the stock, the two calluses unite and form together a new vine, in which the top consists of the new scion and the root of the old vine. The junction of the two is the place where the cambium surface of the scion met the cambium of the stock. In the scions, the cambium lies very close to the exterior layer of the cutting, the bark here being very thin, while in the old stock the cambium is situated many times deeper in, the outer layer or the bark being very thick. It is not necessary that the cambium layers of the two should meet or join all along the cut surface, and a few points of contact and junction is sufficient, although it is better to have as large a junction surface as possible. If the two cambium layers do not meet, the scion will not grow, or, as it is called, take. The scions must be dormant when being grafted, and, if their buds have begun to swell, they will probably not take, or at least success is less certain. In order to keep them dormant they should be cut early in winter, and then be buried in cool and only slightly moist earth, either in a cellar or on the north side of a house, where the sun and heat will not strike them and cause them to start their buds. If the callus should form, or even root, the callus and roots may be cut away without great injury to the cuttings. If the cuttings are dry, they should be soaked for a few hours in tepid water, and afterwards buried in moist sand. This treatment is often useful for imported cuttings which have been injured in transit. They often recover vigor wonderfully fast, and should never be given up for lost as long as there is any green-colored cambium left, in which the sap may again be brought into circulation.

Various Methods of Grafting.

—The general way to graft is to graft on old stocks. Vines of one variety are thus changed into the variety we wish to grow, and from which the scions are taken. The first step is to dig away the soil from the vines down to the first roots, which should be done by a separate gang of men. Next the stocks are sawed off horizontally at the first roots, or say from four to six inches below the surface of the soil. This should also be done by separate hands so as to insure rapidity and skill in the work. Some grafters saw off the stocks somewhat slanting, so as to cause them to shed the sap which always exudes from the stump. Next in order comes the splitting of the wood of the stock and the insertion of the grafts. This requires care and skill, and should not be done by careless hands.

The splitting of the stock is done in several different ways, and to accomplish it we can either use a knife and a wooden mallet or a hand-saw. If the former is used, the knife must be sharp and thick, so as to stand the blows of the mallet. Some growers even use a sharp chisel. If a saw is the tool used,—and I prefer it every time,—the edges of the old wood should afterwards be pared off smoothly with a sharp knife, so as to leave no rough marks of the teeth of the saw. The stock is split straight across, as in the cleft graft, and one scion is then inserted at each end of the cleft on opposite sides of the stock; or the stock is split on one side only, care being taken that the cleft does not extend across the stump, and in this cleft a scion is carefully fitted as before; or a wedge-shaped piece may be sawed out or cut out of the stock, and of the size that can be fitted by a scion. It makes but little difference what method is used, as with ordinary care and skill the scions will take quite readily. Even if they should entirely fail, the same stocks may be grafted over next fall or next year, as they keep their vitality almost unimpaired for years after they are cut. It is only necessary to saw them off until fresh wood is reached.

The next work is to insert the scions. They should never be longer than sufficient to have one eye above the surface of the soil, two or three eyes to the scion being generally enough. The cuttings are first cut in sufficient lengths in the field, or on the spot, and there pared to fit the cleft in the stock. If prepared in the house, they are apt to dry out and become ruined. By keeping them in water they may be kept fresh, but this greatly injures their quality. The best way is to bring the cuttings out to the vineyard wrapped up in wet sacks, and to cut and pare them on the spot where they are to be grafted. With a sharp knife the two opposite sides of the scions are pared off tapering, but not necessarily to a fine point. The scion is then fitted in the cleft, a small wooden wedge being useful for holding the latter open while the scion is fitted. If the stock closes tightly upon the graft, no tying is required, but, if the grip of the stock is not sufficient, tying is needed. Cotton cloth, manilla rope or anything that will hold the two together will answer the purpose. The stocks and scions will both dry slightly, and the tying should therefore be secure and tight.

A piece of bark of the vine is next placed over the cleft, so as to prevent any soil from falling in the cleft, and very careful grafters use a paste made of a mixture of two parts of adobe or clay and one part of cowdung, for covering both the cleft and the sides of the grafts outside of the tying. A stout stake is driven in the ground close to the graft, and the two tied together in order that the graft may not give or be disturbed in the least. The hole is next filled with soil, which should be packed tightly and heaped above the scion, thus forming a small mound above the ground all around the graft. The soil should not be disturbed until the new shoots are well above the ground and have begun to harden their wood, at which time the security of the graft is fully assured. One or more of the grafts may be left growing for the first year, and later on all except one graft are cut off so as to give the vine only one trunk.

In grafting on resistant stocks, the latter generally being smaller then old stocks, a different graft may be used, such as the whip graft. This graft should be above or at least near the top of the ground in order to prevent the scion from taking root, the latter’s roots not being resistant to the phylloxera. Such grafts should be carefully covered with the clay mixture, and soil should be heaped up over their tops. To prevent the scions from drying out, their tops may also be covered with grafting wax.

Stocks and Their Influence.

—The old stock has a decided influence on the scion and the new vine. Which stock is the best on which to graft the Muscat has not yet been determined, but we may presume that any strong and healthy growing variety will answer our purpose. During the first year, and also during the second year, in many instances the new vine assumes a character half way between that of an old-stock variety and that of the variety of the scions. Thus I have seen Muscats grafted on Sultanas and Zinfandels which were almost identical with these varieties. If I had not positively known that they were the tops produced from Muscat scions, I would never have believed them to be anything else than suckers from the old stocks. The leaves, berries and branches of these Muscats were the first year exactly like Sultanas. The berries of those grafted on black grapes were, however, in this instance, not black but white, but I have heard of other instances in which they were partially colored. Some vines, again, showed characteristics of both varieties, the leaves generally being similar to the old stock, while the grapes showed the characteristics of the Muscats. This bastardity, however, wears off in a year or two, and finally the vine assumes the full characteristics of the scion variety. When this takes place it is evident that the sap of the scion or the top of the vine has either changed the root, or through its quantity overpowered the effects of the root-sap.

Muscats grafted on Malagas, Feher Szagos, Sultanas and Zinfandels all do well in time, and in many instances bear even better than Muscats on their own roots. Our experience in grafting the Muscat is, however, limited, and we do not know with any certainty which roots are the most favorable or the most unfavorable on which to graft the Muscat grape. I have seen grafted Muscats on wine stocks which did not do well as regards bearing, while the growth of the vines was rather vigorous. These varieties mentioned above are, however, suitable stocks for Muscat grafts. I learn from Mr. R. C. Kells of Yuba City that the late Dr. S. R. Chandler of the same locality cleared the third year seventy-five dollars per acre from Muscats grafted on Mission vines. This must be considered as very successful, especially as I have heard of other instances where similar grafts did not bear sufficiently the third year to pay for the labor of caring for the vineyard work that year.

VARIOUS SUMMER WORK.

Sulphuring.

—Sulphuring the vines is now considered a most necessary operation, and without doing it well and in time no good crops can be relied upon. It is true that good crops of grapes are sometimes had without sulphuring, but this is only due to chance; the absence of mildew, and immunity from disease of unsulphured vines are rare, even in otherwise most perfectly kept vineyards.

The sulphuring consists in thoroughly dusting the growing vines, leaves, branches, flower buds and berries with powdered sulphur. The first sulphuring must be done when the grapevines leaf out in the spring, and, when the young shoots are about six inches long, it is about time to commence. Many growers sulphur only once, some go over their vines two times, but our most successful growers,—those who get the best and largest fruit crop of grapes and bunches,—sulphur in unfavorable seasons three or four times. The second sulphuring is done just before the blossoms open, and may even, provided the weather remains cool and windy, be done in the open blossoms with great benefit to the setting berries. Miss M. F. Austin of Fresno was the first to successfully sulphur in the open blossom, the result being very large crops. But not all have been as successful as she, and one of our most experienced vineyardists and raisin-growers, T. C. White, prefers to sulphur just before the blossom opens, as, in case of very warm weather when the sulphur is thrown on the blossom, the latter is apt to blast. We are therefore on the safe side if we sulphur just before the buds have opened, and after the grapes have set. But on cold, windy days when one of the cold electric northwest winds are sweeping down the valleys, sulphuring must be done whether the blossom is open or not, as it is just at this time the sulphur is required the most, in order to counteract the formation of the first stage of the powdery mildew. The vapor of the sulphur destroys the germs of the mildew, and thus prevents the latter from causing the grapes to fall off. After the grapes have fully set, no further sulphuring is required except in the case of heavy rains or in continued cloudy weather, when there is always danger that the mildew will reappear. If heavy rains should occur during the summer, a renewed sulphuring is always necessary or at least advisable, but in ordinary seasons no sulphuring is needed after the berries have set well, as the germs of the mildew are then sufficiently injured to not develop later in the season.

Sufficient sulphuring is always noticeable in the vineyard by its smell, and, when this smell is strong and pronounced, no further sulphuring is required. The sulphur is applied to the vines either by the “dredger” (or dust-can) or by a pair of sulphur bellows. The dredger is used when the vines are small, while the bellows are necessary to spread the sulphur evenly when the vines have reached a certain size. Many growers use, during the first sulphuring, small burlap bags filled with sulphur. The meshes of the burlaps are large enough to allow the sulphur to go through. The sulphur should be finely pulverized to be effective, and the sublimated French sulphur is by many considered the best. The cost of sulphuring varies according to the size of the vines, but is generally about three dollars per acre. Young vines under three years of age require little sulphuring, while older vines require a great deal. About ten tons of sulphur will be enough for 160 acres.

Tying Over.

—The tying over of the branches is another vineyard operation much used in the interior raisin districts, generally in the end of June or the middle of July. It consists in so bending and tying the long, straggling branches of the vine that they will shade the grapes hanging in the center. The long branch is bent, not in a direct line towards the center, as it would then expose too many of the lower grape bunches, but in a spiral direction round the vine. If there is any fear that the grapes will be exposed and sunburned, and the vines have not been properly summer pruned, the tying over is the only process by which great loss can be prevented and the grape crop saved. In tying over, no twine is used. The end of the long branch is twisted and fastened to other branches, and, when the grapes are ripe and the picking season comes, a single light pull will suffice to untie all and allow the grapes to be picked. Great care should be used in tying over, lest the lower branches become exposed and sunburned. Careless or inexperienced laborers will often accomplish a great deal of work and a great deal of harm in an incredibly short time. I have seen vineyards where more harm was done by tying over than by the sun and wind combined.

Covering the Vines.

—Instead of tying over, many vineyardists now cover the vines, and place the covers on the open center of the vine, in order that they may protect the grapes from exposure to the sun. This is done in June, several days before the hot spell is expected. The last week in June is the best time almost everywhere in California, as the vines are then open in the center, and any unusually hot weather would easily cause the grapes to sunburn. The process of covering is very simple. With a pair of shears the longest branches are clipped off and immediately placed on the open center. This is generally enough to prevent the exposed grapes in the center of the vine from being scalded. More than half a dozen branches will seldom be required, and at picking time these dry branches must first be thrown off, so as to give the picker access to the grapes. The covering of the vines is a better process than tying over, requiring less work and being more quickly performed. It is especially useful for old vines, as the grapes of young vines are principally exposed from the sides.

Thinning the Crop.

—The proper thinning of the crop should be done by pruning. If the proper amount of wood is left, no thinning out of the grapes is needed. If a few show-grapes or extra large raisins are needed for exhibiting purposes, they can be produced by a judicious cutting of the majority of the grapes from any single bunch. If the free half of the bunch is cut off, the part that is left will produce very large grapes. This operation is, however, never likely to enter as a regular vineyard operation in our vineyards, as with us labor is too scarce. The object of our raisin industry is to produce cheap medium-sized raisins of good quality, to be used by the masses of the people, instead of a smaller quantity of very large grapes, which could only be used by the rich.

Ringing the Vines.

—This consists in removing a part of the bark all around a cane. In France and Greece a special instrument is made to perform this operation quickly and carefully. A ring of bark half an inch wide is all that is required to have the desired effect. The vines are ringed when the grapes are half grown, and only a few canes are ringed on each vine. The effect of ringing is to greatly increase the crop of grapes, also to produce the grapes earlier in the season. So far this process has not been used in California to any extent. In the Grecian Islands, where currants are raised, this ringing has been practiced for years, with more or less beneficial effect. The sap in the cane that is ringed is prevented from again returning to the root, and goes to produce a larger quantity of grapes above the ring. But thereby the cane is seriously injured, and often to such an extent that it must be entirely removed the following season. Care must therefore be taken to leave enough unringed branches to serve as fruit-bearing wood the following year. If done with care and good judgment, the ringing does no great injury to the vine. For a fuller account of the process, see article on Currants.

The Vineyard Labors of the Year.

—The following synopsis of the various labors in a raisin vineyard can only be of interest to the beginner, or to any one who contemplates engaging in the raisin business. The data given are only approximate, as they must differ in different localities, or according to the changing of the seasons:

December.

—After the first frost, or when the vines are dormant, planting new vines and cuttings may begin. Pruning the old wood. Burning the prunings. Manuring the soil.

January.

—Plowing, cultivating and planting.

February.

—Cultivating and plowing.

March.

—Grafting the grapes and finishing plowing.

April.

—Hoeing the vines and cultivating. Sulphuring and suckering.

May.

—Sulphuring and summer pruning.

June.

—Hoeing. Covering or tying over the vines.

July.

—Irrigating where needed. Fixing trays and sweatboxes.

August.

—Distributing trays and sweatboxes in the vineyard. Picking the first crop. Packing should begin as soon as possible.

September.

—Picking, drying, turning the trays, reversing, taking up.

October.

—Picking the last of the second crop. Packing continues.

November.

—Hauling in, stacking and cleaning off trays and sweatboxes. Irrigating and manuring the land. New land should be prepared for planting, which should begin as soon as the first frost has killed the leaves of the vine.

PRUNING.

Winter Pruning, or Pruning Hard Wood.

—The pruning of vines comprises two different processes. The first one has for its object the shaping of the vines, the second one similarly the shortening of the branches properly so as to enable them to bear better fruit. These two points must always be kept in view, much more so of course during the first few years, before the vines have reached their bearing age. But even in after years the pruning must be so conducted, that the shape of the vine is not changed so as to interfere with the work in the field, or with the perfect development of the grapes. As regards the shape of the vine, it has been decided that in our raisin districts the Muscat requires to be pruned low, in order to properly protect the grapes from sun and wind. The head should be as low as possible, or even rest on the ground, and in no instance be more than a few inches above the same. Many of the bunches will then rest on the ground or hang a few inches above it, and experience shows us that such low bunches are the best and those which produce the finest raisins. Tall Muscat vines never produce as sweet and as large bunches or grapes as those headed low, and their grapes are apt to sunburn or be otherwise checked in their growth. During the first year, the young vine should be cut back to a single stem, it being enough to leave two or three eyes above the ground. The second season these canes should all be cut away except three, which are to form the future head of the vine. Each one of these may be cut to two eyes, thus leaving six eyes on the vine. In the majority of vines, the head should by this time have been formed, as the following year will be the first year in which the vines will bear.

When Muscat vines have grown two seasons, they should be pruned for fruit. The third season will always give some fruit, while, in many localities where the vines have been well cared for, the yield may be quite large and pay handsomely. No direction as to pruning, which will apply to every locality or to every vine, is possible. In different localities the climatic and other conditions are so variable that the methods of pruning may be modified. Where the vines grow strong and vigorous more wood should be left. In cool and sheltered places the vines should be given a greater spread to allow more sun and air to enter. In warm localities, with a broiling sun, the principal object in pruning should be to properly shelter the grapes. There is danger, or at least there are great disadvantages in pruning either too long or too short, and in leaving too many or too few spurs. In pruning too long, or leaving too many eyes, the shape of the vine is changed or even seriously injured. In leaving too many spurs, the vines may bear too many and too small grapes. To find the medium between these extremes is always the great object and study to which the grower should devote his attention. In rich and moist soils which produce strong vines, more eyes should be left, and in sandy, poor soil a few eyes may suffice to cause the vine to bear much more that it can properly mature and perfect. The year before the vines bear their first good crop, the spurs left should not exceed three or four, and each spur should not have more than two eyes, including the eye nearest the old wood, which eye is often overlooked and not counted in. The next year a few more spurs may be left, but at no time should each spur be allowed to carry more than two eyes. If more eyes are left, the lower eyes will not develop, and the only thing attained by such pruning is to increase the size of the head, and to place the leaves and the grapes farther away from the center of the vine.

At the age of six years, or when the vine is in full bearing, no more spurs should be added, as the vine has then attained a mature age, and the yield will increase independently of an increased number of spurs. How many spurs should be left it is not possible to say. The experience with most growers is generally that too few spurs are left, and that from ten to fifteen spurs are not too many on large and healthy vines. The tendency of the growers is now to leave more spurs than formerly, and to always restrict the spurs to two eyes each. This experience has been acquired simultaneously in Fresno, San Bernardino and San Diego counties. Many growers affirm the fact that the difficulty is to get spurs enough, and my own experience is that, after the vine has once attained its age of full bearing, all the strongest branches are required to furnish spurs, and that only the weak and sickly shoots should be cut away entirely. The strong flow of sap in the spring requires many outlets, so as not to unnecessarily push the cell walls and cause disorders, and in case the soil is not strong enough to sustain and perfect so many grapes, it is better to manure it heavily and make it rich enough for all purposes. I believe an average of from eight to ten spurs are required by strong and bearing vines. Only strong canes should be left at any time. Weak and immature canes should be cut off close to the trunk or to the head.

This method of pruning differs materially from that this season adopted by A. B. Butler. He leaves now only from five to eight spurs on the vines, generally the lesser number. He maintains that his object is to produce large and superior grapes, and not to have his vines overbear. The outcome of such close pruning has not yet been demonstrated, but it may be possible that this is the proper way. Mr. Butler has certainly one point in his favor, and that is that it has not yet been demonstrated that very close pruning causes the disease known as black-knot, as quite frequently the unpruned vines show this disease much more than those which are pruned close. Another point in favor of this pruning is that it has been practiced in Malaga for years without any ill effects. But, before such very close pruning can be generally recommended, our experience in this direction should be more extensive, and several years more will be necessary to come to any satisfactory conclusion in this respect. We know, however, that too many (say from twenty to twenty-five) spurs will exhaust the low-headed Muscatel vines, and in order to bring such vines back to proper bearing it has been found necessary to reduce the number of spurs at once to one-third and then gradually increase their number as the vines grow stronger. Every grower should study his own vines and adapt the number of spurs to the quality of the crop. If the crop is inferior, reduce the number; if again the crop is superior, we may try to gradually give a few more spurs in order to reach the greatest yield of first-class grapes. In pruning the spurs, the cut should be made a little above the eye or bud, and not so close to it that it will be injured and dry out.

Suckers from the roots should be removed to a limited extent, that is, now and then a sucker may be left in order to give material for forming a new head, if this should be found necessary. But as a rule the many suckers which rise from the roots should be removed in early spring with a sharp-pointed stick, and even those which rise from below the regular head should be broken off while young, or be pruned off in winter time.

Another system of pruning called the Chaintre system has been introduced, or at least spoken of during the last few years. As, however, it is not generally used, or even to my knowledge used at all, for raisin grapes, I need only here allude to it. It consists of pruning the vine to one single long stem, which is carried along the ground and, at a distance of six or eight feet from the root, fastened to a stake. This branch is pruned to shorter branches and spurs, each of the latter to one or two eyes each to furnish wood and fruit. The advantages of the Chaintre pruning are claimed to be principally two,—a greater yield of grapes and a larger outlet for the abundant sap in the spring. It is supposed that, if the vine is pruned too short, the sudden flow of sap in the spring has a great tendency to poison some of the cells and vessels of the wood, and cause the disease known as black-knot. The Chaintre system endeavors, by furnishing the vine with more cells and vessels, and thus a larger outlet for the sap, to overcome this difficulty. The Chaintre system has, however, some great inconveniences. It interferes considerably with the tillage of the soil. It increases the cost of the vineyard through the extra stakes necessary to support the vines,—inconveniences so great that I doubt whether the system will ever be seriously adopted anywhere on this coast, even if it should prove of any advantage.

The time for the pruning depends upon the season. The only safe rule is that vineyards may be pruned as soon as the vines are dormant. If pruned too soon, a new growth will start, which will be killed by the first frost. In many seasons the pruning may be done in November and December; in large vineyards it must be begun early, so as to finish before the plowing commences. Early pruning will cause the vines to start early in the spring, while late pruning will considerably delay the starting of the buds. When the spring frosts are to be feared, the pruning may be deferred for some months, or until the end of January, as it delays the budding out of the vine in the spring, sometimes as much as fourteen days. But, on the other hand, the first warm spring weather is so favorable to the development of the grapevines and the setting of the fruit, that every advantage should be taken of the same. The very best crops are generally had on early pruned vines.

Bleeding of the Vines.

—The bleeding of the vines after pruning in the spring is by many considered injurious. So far as I know, no direct experiments to prove this have been made in this country, but European experiments with wine grapevines point to no ill effects from the bleeding of the vines. The bleeding retards the budding out, and this fact has led some growers to the practice of pruning twice. In the first pruning an extra eye is left on every spur, and these eyes are again clipped off shortly before the eyes begin to swell in the spring. The bleeding of the vines thus causes the eyes to be retarded until the frost is over. I believe such practice is both unnecessary and too costly, and is not required in any of our raisin districts, and where such practice must be employed the raisin grape cannot be perfectly at home. Of late years spring frosts have become very rare in our principal raisin districts, and the practice of double pruning is no longer thought of.

Summer Pruning, or Pruning Green Wood.

—Summer pruning is a much disputed vineyard operation, which, however, at least in some localities, is of great importance. This summer, or rather spring, pruning consists of cutting back the young growing shoots from one-third to one-half just after the berries have set well. The proper time of the year is in May, but the exact time must necessarily be different in different localities and seasons. In Fresno the cutting back should not be done later than May, and never except when the vines show a vigorous growth. The principal object the summer pruner has in view is to force the secondary branches of the vine as much towards the center of the vine as possible, so as to form there a perfect canopy of shade to serve as a protection to the young and tender berries. If let alone, the branches of the vine will throw out these secondary shoots near the top of the branches, thus leaving the head of the vine unprotected from the sun. The shortening in of the branches necessarily throws the new shoots to the center of the vine. A not less important object to be sought by the summer pruning is the strengthening of the young branch. In May, when the vines are covered by the young and vigorous shoots, they are yet exceedingly brittle, and only a slight pushing is required to break the branch off just at its junction with the old wood. A heavy wind at this time sometimes does an immense damage, and the vineyard will look as though every vine had been dragged over. Half of the branches may be broken and hang partially attached to one side of the vine. A single wind may ruin two-thirds of the crop. This can only be prevented by the summer pruning of the vines. By a heavy shortening in of the branches, the latter expose so much less surface for the wind to act on, that no branches are broken, and we have failed to see the heaviest wind cause any noticeable damage in vineyards which had their vines properly shortened in. The summer pruning in no way injures the vines. The sap is checked in its flow only for a few days, and within a week the new side shoots make their appearance. But the vineyardist must be careful not to summer prune after the hot summer weather has set in, as the hot weather will burn or scald the young grapes and ruin them entirely. For the San Joaquin valley raisin districts, I cannot advise summer pruning after the first days of June; in Southern California, somewhat later. Grapevines on sandy, dry and poor soil should not be summer pruned, or only very lightly so. They have not strength to start a new growth and will remain stunted all through the season.

Many growers of Riverside, El Cajon and Fresno consider summer pruning beneficial, if not necessary, and practice it every year regularly. It is necessary to summer prune heavily or not at all. Cut back one-half of the growth, or cut back leaving one or two leaves above the bunch of grapes on every cane. If the young canes are only topped, the secondary branches will come out near the ends of the canes and bear them down, in time exposing the bunches to the sun as well as causing the second crop to grow too far from the main trunk, the summer pruning thus acting the opposite of which it was intended. In Greece the wine grapevines are summer pruned, but the currants are never so treated.

Root-pruning.

—The pruning of the roots of grapevines, in order to cause them to bear, is entirely unnecessary, and is never done by experienced growers. Some growers have practiced the cutting of the surface roots of the vines so as to cause the tap roots or the main roots to go farther down, and they claim that by this method greater crops are harvested. I am satisfied this is only a theory not supported by facts. Surface roots are as necessary to plants as deep-soil roots, and serve the plants in their way, bringing atmospheric air to the circulation in the roots. If too many surface roots are formed, it is a sure indication of too much water in the top soil, as too frequent irrigation with a small stream of water will cause such roots to form. The proper remedy is to irrigate less frequently, but more at a time. The above does not refer to the pruning of the roots of grafted vines. In cases where Muscats have been grafted on resistant stocks, it is of importance that the graft should not make roots of its own, as these would soon overpower the stock and in their turn succumb to the enemies which it was the intention to avoid. When rooted vines are planted in the vineyard, their roots should be well pruned, and all dead and decaying, as well as dried-up, parts should be removed. If they are allowed to remain on the vines, they will draw moisture from the sound parts at a time when all the moisture is needed for the formation of new roots.

Suckering.

—The object of this process is to relieve the raisin-vine of superfluous wood before the latter has had time to draw on the strength of the vine and deprive it of the elements necessary to support the fruit-bearing branches. The proper time for suckering is early in the spring, when the young wood is yet tender and easily broken. With a hard and flat piece of wood, the lower suckers are dug out from below the ground, while the upper suckers may be broken by hand. A sucker must be understood to be any branch which does not produce fruit at a time when the vine is old enough to bear. In strong and moist soil and on strong vines even the lowest shoots produce grapes, and can therefore hardly be called suckers. But as a rule even they should be removed, unless we have a special object in view, such as renewing the trunk of the vine, lowering its head, or in otherwise encouraging the lower branches.

While few vineyardists take sufficient care and time to sucker their vines, there can be no doubt that the operation is of the greatest importance, in order that as large and good a crop as possible may be secured. It is not only best to remove all the non-fruit-bearing branches which spring out from the root and the trunk, but also a little later on, after the shoots have reached a foot or more, to cut any branch from the head of the vine which does not produce fruit. In many instances, however, it is necessary to renew the head of the vine, and for that purpose lower suckers may be allowed to grow. For a year or two these are pruned regularly and made to bear, and the old sickly head is then removed.

VARIOUS VINEYARD TOOLS.

General Notes.

—It is not my intention to here describe the various tools used in the vineyard so minutely that they can be made after the description, but simply to enumerate and call attention to them in order that as little repetition as necessary may be made. Every local blacksmith or mechanic invents, improves or patents vineyard tools of every description, and almost every year sees new tools introduced and older ones discarded. Still a few of these tools have become standard, and modifications of them are not always improvements.

The Sheep’s-foot.

—This is a very useful tool in planting grape cuttings. It consists of a round rod of three-eighths-inch iron and about three and one-half feet long, furnished with a cross handle at the upper end. The lower end is very slightly flattened out and split to a depth of one and one-half inches, the cleft thus formed being a little wider at the point of the bar, while the interior angle of the cleft should be rounded in order that the cutting may not be cut. The sheep’s-foot is used in very soft ground only, where it can be pushed down readily. In planting, the lower joint of the cutting is grasped by the cleft in the rod, and both are pushed down together to the required depth. A twist is then given the handle, so as to get the rod loose from the cutting. The rod is then pulled up, and a tamp with the foot sets the ground solid round the cutting. Care should be taken that the cutting is not pulled up with the rod, as it will prove fatal to the cutting.

The Planting Bar.

—This bar is used also in loose ground free from rocks. It consists of a flat bar of iron two and one-half inches wide, from three-eighths to one-half inch thick and three and one-half feet long, and is furnished at the upper end with a handle. In using this bar, it is first pushed in the ground, and a hole is made for the cutting. The cutting is then pushed down into the hole, the bar inserted alongside of it and pressed forward, in order to fill the hole and set the soil solid around the cutting.

The Dibble.

—This tool is simply a hard piece of oakwood, with a curved handle and pointed. It is a most useful instrument when the vines are being pruned. By means of it the soil is scraped off from around the trunk of the vine, to enable the pruner to cut off the suckers as close to the trunk as possible. Every pruner should be furnished with a dibble.

Planting Chains.

—These are best made of twisted wire, such as is used for clothes lines. Lines made of cotton or hemp are apt to stretch when dry, and shrink when wet. Copper wires are inserted to mark the distances at which the vines should be planted.

Spades.

—Spades are often used for planting. Long-handled spades are more useful than those with short handles.

Hoes.

—Besides the common, heavy hoes, very useful hoes can be made of old shovels which are too worn to be of account as such. New handles are set on the shovel blades at a right or sharp angle, thus transforming them into veritable hoes. With these tools much more work can be accomplished than with the common, manufactured hoe, which never cuts well. The large, flat-faced Italian hoe imported to this country from Italy is a most admirable instrument when planting cuttings in nursery rows. In fact it is then indispensable.

Plows.

—Of plows, heavy double plows for two horses are used for plowing in the center between the rows, and smaller plows for plowing closer to the vines. As these can be had everywhere, and as every grower has his own preferences, no description of them is required.

Cultivators.

—These are indispensable in the vineyard, and various models are in use. The common, diamond-shovel cultivator for both one and two horses is indispensable in every vineyard. The larger one of these may be greatly improved by affixing to the posterior shovels a cutter-bar, which should stand horizontal and on a level with the center of the posterior shovels.

Randel Disc Cultivators.

—These are useful in ground that has baked before the lately planted cuttings have begun to bud. They seldom cut or injure any of the cuttings, and the whole field may be gone over regardless of rows or cuttings.

The Ash Trough.

—The ash trough consists of a long trough on wheels, all made of galvanized iron, and furnished with numerous perforated holes. It is drawn by two or more horses through the vineyard, and the cuttings are burned in it as it goes along, and the ashes are scattered over the soil. As yet this trough is only used in a few of the largest vineyards, but when perfected will be useful everywhere, as by its aid the ashes may be saved for the vines instead of being wasted as is now so often the case.

Sulphuring Cans or Bellows.

—These are of various shapes and patterns. The cans have been superseded by the simple little burlap bag, which does the same or better work. The bellows are similar to common bellows, but are furnished with a distributing nozzle and with an air opening through which the sulphur can be poured.

The Cutter-sled.

—This is simply a sled four feet long by two and a half feet wide or more, under which has been fixed a horizontal bar of iron in the shape of a shallow U. It is used in the vineyard after the plowing and cultivation is finished, and when it is of importance to kill the few remaining weeds. The driver stands on the sled, which is pulled by one or two horses. It cuts all the weeds below the soil, and is a most effective and useful tool.

Vineyard Trucks.

—These useful trucks are California inventions, and of the greatest importance to the grower. They are now made of various sizes, but should never be over four feet wide, while three feet is even better, and their length should not exceed six feet. They are made to turn readily anywhere by having the front wheels or wheel movable, independently of the balance of the truck. By the aid of these trucks the grower can use horse labor in distributing his boxes and trays in the vineyard, even where the vines are planted so close that ordinary wagons cannot pass. The vineyard truck is now used in all Fresno vineyards, and is considered almost indispensable. The first truck ever made for this purpose was designed and invented by J. T. Goodman of Fresno.

Shears.

—These should be of the very best make of soft steel, and furnished with double springs. So far no good pruning shears are manufactured in this country, the best make coming from Switzerland, and retailed here at $3.00 per pair. It pays any grower to buy the best shears, as inferior ones not only last but a short time, but also do poor and slow work, and in the long run cost more than the best and most expensive make. With a good pair a pruner can in a day cut fifty per cent more than with a poor pair, and from ten to twenty-five per cent more than with an ordinary pair. It therefore can be readily seen how the extra price can be saved in the first day or two. Such fine shears should be handled and cared for very much like a razor. They should never be ground on a revolving stone, but only honed with oil on a fine hone. When the season is over they should be oiled, looked over and laid away. Large shears with wooden handles are not needed for Muscat vines. The best size shear is the medium size, which can be used with one hand.

DRYING AND CURING.

CALIFORNIA SUN-DRIED RAISINS.

Note.

—In describing the processes of drying, curing, packing, assorting, etc., I have followed only methods which should be used by every conscientious raisin grower and packer. These methods are now actually in use, not by every packer and grower, but by the best of them, by those who strive to produce a very superior article, which will compare favorably with and compete successfully with the best products of Malaga or other foreign raisin districts. Too much poor curing and packing is done in every raisin district, to the great detriment of the district, its growers and its packers. The cause of so much poor work is undoubtedly due to the method of selling the raisins in bulk for a previously fixed sum, whether the crop is good, bad or indifferent. For many years no inducements were held out to the grower to produce a very superior article, and as a consequence the packer got very little first-class raisins to pack. When raisins are paid for according to their quality alone, there will be plenty of first-class raisins, and both packers and growers will be the gainers. The former will get more first-class fruit to pack, the latter will find it to their advantage to produce it. During the last season (1889 to 1890), a change was inaugurated, and a grading of prices according to the quality of the raisins has been insisted on. When this system is fully carried out, and when the grower knows at the beginning of the season that he can get a higher price for his superior raisins, California will produce as many high-grade raisins as Malaga or any other raisin district. Already now our average raisins are better than the average Malagas, and all that our growers ask for are inducements to produce the best. With a view to promote the attainment of these expectations, the following has been written. Raisins may be produced by cheaper methods than those which I advocate, but only great care, judgment and study will accomplish the best results. In the raisin industry it pays to produce the best, and to attain this very little extra care is required.

Time of Ripening.

—Varying with different localities and seasons, the Muscat grape ripens in California between the 10th of August and the 30th of September. The earliest points where raisin grapes are now grown are probably Palm Valley in San Bernardino county and the plains of Kern county. In both these localities Muscats have been known to be ripe as early as July, but neither locality has yet produced any great quantity of raisins, and can hardly be considered as a raisin center. The earliness of the San Joaquin valley generally is probably caused by its small elevation above the sea, which is about three hundred feet for Fresno, and increasing as we go farther south. San Bernardino county again, somewhat later as to ripening, is, as far as its raisin centers are concerned, more elevated, or from one thousand to two thousand feet or more. The nearness to the sea has there also some influence to retard the maturing of the grapes, and it is certain that in Southern California the later ripening of the raisin grapes is principally due to this cause. Thus the picking in Riverside commences between the 10th and the 30th of September, and while the other raisin districts in the southern part of California may vary some, still the ripening season coincides very nearly with that of Riverside. In Highlands the grapes are said to ripen two weeks later than at Riverside. In El Cajon the grapes ripen between the 1st and 10th of September. In Fresno the Muscatel raisin grapes ripen in the end of August, and generally by the 20th of August the picking has begun everywhere on the drier soils, while on the wet soils it is generally retarded from one to two weeks. As a rule the dryness of the soil influences considerably the ripening of the grapes, and even the quality of the soil is not without some influence, as on sandy, warm soil grapes ripen much earlier than on heavy land. As an illustration of such early ripening, we may mention that, on certain gravelly soils northwest or north of Santa Ana, the Muscat grapes ripen two weeks earlier than on the heavier and finer soils in the immediate vicinity. The growers take advantage of this early ripening to sell their Muscat grapes fresh instead of drying them.

In Salt river and Gila valleys in Arizona the grapes are said to ripen much earlier than in California, but so far the vineyards there are not old enough to have been greatly benefited by this early ripening. On the plains of Kern county the ripening is hastened by the nature of the soil, and possibly also by the nearness to the desert and the desert wind, by the greater distance from the sea, and by a less amount of rainfall. In Malaga the grapes ripen several weeks earlier than in Fresno; in fact, the whole Mediterranean region seems to be earlier than California. As a general rule, we may state that the Muscat grapes ripen later in Southern California than in the central portion of the State. In regard to Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, the farther we go towards the south the earlier do the grapes ripen. But in every district there are localities which are earlier than others. The Muscat and Muscatel ripen earlier than the Sultana, which latter grape begins to ripen earlier than the Muscat, but attains perfection much later than any other of our raisin grapes. Thompson Seedless ripens in Yolo about August 10th, and is thus our earliest raisin grape.

Signs of Maturity.

—There are three different ways by which the ripeness of a grape can be tested,—saccharometer, taste or color. The saccharometer is a well-known instrument, consisting of a graded glass tube that will sink to different depths in liquors containing different percentages of sugar. There are different kinds of saccharometers, but the most practical one for the general raisin-grower is one divided in one hundred degrees, each degree showing one per cent of sugar to every hundred of water. Thus, if the saccharometer sinks down to twenty-five, we know that the water or must contains twenty-five per cent of saccharine water and seventy-five per cent of water. To properly test the grapes, a few bunches should be picked from several vines, the juice should be squeezed out and passed through a towel or otherwise strained. The must is then poured into the test tube, and the saccharometer inserted. If it shows twenty-five degrees or more of sugar, the grapes will make good raisins, but for very superior raisins several degrees more of saccharine are needed. It is not unusual to find the grapes reach thirty degrees in favored localities and in favorable seasons. Only inexperienced vineyardists will require the aid of the saccharometer to determine the state of ripening of the grapes; the more experienced judge by taste and color.

The taste of course is the most commonly used method for ascertaining the ripeness of the raisin grapes. Every grower experienced or not should examine his grapes repeatedly. To give directions for tasting the ripeness of the grapes is of course impossible; it must be learned, and can only be learned by practice. It is enough to say here that the grapes should taste very sweet, contain no acid, and if possible be rather solid.

The color is also a valuable adjunct in determining the ripeness of the raisin grapes. Fully ripe and perfect fruit should be amber yellow, somewhat transparent and waxy. If this color is combined with great sweetness, and in Muscatels with absence of acidity, we can be sure that the grapes are ripe. Some grapes do, however, especially when too much exposed to the sun, acquire the yellow amber tint without being sweet, but they are readily distinguished from the ripe grapes by their being of smaller size and harder, tasteless and acid. Such grapes never develop into good, mature grapes, and do not make good raisins. I may also remark that not all ripe grapes become amber colored. Those that grow in the shade and on very damp ground remain always green, although they acquire a certain sweetness, and will make good raisins. The Muscat grapes will make salable raisins even if not fully ripe, but in order to make superior and good raisins all grapes should be “dead” ripe, especially so if the grapes are to be dipped in lye. If unripe or partially ripe grapes of Muscats and Sultanas are dipped, they make very poor and red raisins; it would have been better-if they had never been dipped. This is especially the case with the Sultana, which begins to ripen and is eatable long before the Muscat, but which only makes a good dipped raisin after the Muscat has been ripe for some time. Three or four days make a great difference sometimes in the amount of sugar in the grapes, and consequently in the quality of the raisins, and the experienced grower will keep his grapes on the vines as long as possible to attain the greatest possible amount of sweetness. But on the other hand it takes judgment to foresee how sweet the grapes will be, as in unfavorable seasons they will not attain their full sweetness even if allowed to hang long on the vines. To know the time after which the grapes do not increase in sugar requires much experience and acquaintance with the locality where they are grown. In this respect different years vary very much.

Picking.

—Many vineyardists pick their raisins too green or before they are fully ripe. Not all raisins ripen at the same time, and to make the best possible raisins out of the grapes, it is necessary to pick over the vineyard several times, each time picking only the ripest grapes. In places where there are two crops of grapes, at least two pickings are absolutely necessary, and in many places two pickings are enough. The green grapes of the first crop are then left to be picked with the second crop, at which time they will probably be perfectly ripe and very choice. But if the vineyard is small and manageable, and the owner wishes to realize the most that he possibly can, he should make at least three different pickings, each time taking care only to pick those grapes which are fully ripe and which would make a first-class quality of raisins. As long as the smaller vineyardists sell their raisins in bulk at a contracted price of so much a pound for any kind or quality of raisins, we cannot expect any great improvement in the too common mode of picking, where good, bad and indifferent grapes go on the trays together. But I am certain that in a few years this will or must change. Raisins in sweatboxes will bring the price they are actually worth, and it will be to the interest of every grower to pick his grapes at the time they will make the best possible raisins, even if extra labor is required for the work. The pickers generally use small, pointed knives for separating the bunches, and they are preferable to small shears, as better enabling the picker to reach farther in between bunches and branches, and to cut the former without injuring the branch.

In picking the bunches, great care should be taken, much more than is at present in use. It is always best to begin picking in the poorest part of the vineyard, as it will take some time for the pickers to learn; they are almost certain to pick in the beginning too many green grapes. The poorest part of the vineyard is also apt to have the ripest grapes. The large, fine bunches should be handled with the utmost care, in order that the bloom of the grapes may not be injured. The bunches generally should be handled by the stems only, or, if this is impracticable, by the stem as much as possible. In separating a large bunch from the vine, the bunch should be cut as close to the stem as possible, and at the end of the stem of the bunch there should remain a portion of that broader part by which the bunch is attached to the main branch. There is nothing prettier on a bunch of raisins than this broad end of the bunch; it gives an idea of strength and oddity to the raisin cluster, showing the buyer at a glance that it is a cluster which was once solidly attached to the vine. Many raisin-packers place this broad end of the bunch so as to protrude above or between the berries, as if inviting the purchaser to take hold of it and thus lift the luscious bunch out of the box. With the poorer and smaller bunches, no such care in cutting need be exercised, and it would be to no benefit to so cut a small, poor bunch that it would cause the purchaser to believe it was a large bunch. Poorer bunches might therefore be cut with short stems. As to the handling of the bunches, the intelligent grower will soon learn how to instruct his men. If vine branches interfere with the lifting of the bunch from the vine, some of them may be cut without any injury to the vine, but too many branches cut this way will cause a new growth to start, which often is derived from the best fruit buds for the ensuing season, and which always is apt to be injured from frost.

A picker should average not less than fifty trays a day of cleaned and assorted grapes. At this rate the picking of twenty pounds of grapes costs about two and a half cents. Some persons employing white labor claimed to have lowered the cost of picking to one and three-quarter cents per tray of twenty pounds, but I failed to learn how these grapes had been handled, cleaned and assorted. The picking of the grapes is facilitated by previous care given the vines. Neglected and entangled vines are much more difficult and expensive to pick than those which have been properly cared for and correctly pruned the season before. The same may be said as regards vines between the branches of which weeds have been allowed to grow. In picking from such vines, the grapes are always torn, the best bunches destroyed and many grapes wasted on the ground.