The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Todas

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Title: The Todas

Author: W. H. R. Rivers

Release date: October 8, 2023 [eBook #71828]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Macmillan and Co., Limited, 1906

Credits: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TODAS ***

[Contents]

THE TODAS

[Contents]

Rivers’s Todas.

D. R. R. Clark, Ld. Printers, Edinburgh

[Contents]

THE TODAS

BY
W. H. R. RIVERS
FELLOW OF ST. JOHN’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

London
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1906
All rights reserved

[Contents]

Richard Clay and Sons, Limited,
BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND
BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. [v]

[Contents]

PREFACE

It has been my object in writing this book to make it, not merely a record of the customs and beliefs of a people, but also a demonstration of anthropological method. The great need of anthropology at the present time is for more exact method, not only in collecting material, but also in recording it, so that readers may be able to assign its proper value to each fact, and may be provided with definite evidence which will enable them to estimate the probable veraciousness and thoroughness of the record.

With this idea in my mind I have tried to describe as fully as possible the way in which my account has been built up, and have been careful to point out the different degrees of trustworthiness of different portions of my story. Perhaps I have been so anxious to make it clear when my record is of doubtful value that sometimes I may have laid undue stress on its uncertainties and deficiencies.

I have tried to make a clear distinction between my description of Toda custom and belief, and any theoretical conclusions drawn by myself, and have kept the latter for sections at the ends of chapters or for special chapters, of which those numbered xi, xix, xxix and xxx are the most important.

It may be thought by some that the book is unduly loaded with minute detail, and I am myself aware that I have often complicated, perhaps even obscured, the story I am telling by the mass of detail with which it is accompanied. I have had, [vi]however, no scruples on this score, partly because I wished my readers thoroughly to grasp the nature of the material on which my account is based, but still more, because details which may seem insignificant or trivial are often of great importance in the comparative study of custom and belief.

I have not attempted such a comparative study of Toda institutions. It was often very tempting to suggest resemblances with the practices of other peoples of the present or the past, but the result would have been to swell the book to unwieldy dimensions, and perhaps to have obscured the description of the life of the people. In giving parallels for Toda custom I have therefore limited myself to examples from other parts of India, and even here I have only dealt with a few resemblances which illustrate certain suggestions made in the final chapter on the origin and affinities of the Toda people.

In conclusion, I am very glad to express my gratitude for help received from many sources. The researches on which the book is based were undertaken in consequence of the award to myself of the income of the Gunning Fund of the Royal Society for the years 1901–2, and my work was also assisted by a grant from the British Association. In India I received every assistance from those whose official positions gave them the means of helping me, and my thanks are especially due to Mr. Edgar Thurston, whose kind interest and assistance I cannot sufficiently acknowledge. I owe much to the care and attention with which my two interpreters, P. Samuel and Albert Urrilla, performed their duties, and I am greatly indebted to the managers of the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society at Ootacamund for the services of the former, and to Mr. C. M. Mullaly and Mr. Hadfield for giving the latter leave from his forest duties in order that he might help me.

Of friends in England I am especially indebted to Dr. C. S. Myers, who kindly read nearly the whole of the book in proof; to Syed Ali Bilgrami for information on various points connected with Indian custom; to Don M. da Zilva [vii]Wickramasinghe for reading Chapter xxv, dealing with the language; and to Mr. H. N. Webber for help, especially in the revision of the genealogical tables.

Most of the illustrations in the book are from photographs taken under my direction by Messrs. Wiele and Klein of Madras, and I am indebted to H. M. India Office for permission to make use of illustrations from “An Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the Nilagiris,” by the late J. Williamson Breeks (1873), and to Messrs. Longmans Green and Co., for permission to make use of illustrations from “A Phrenologist amongst the Todas,” by the late Colonel William E. Marshall (1873).

W. H. R. R. [ix]

[Contents]

CHAPTER I

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER II

THE TODA PEOPLE 18

CHAPTER III

DAIRIES AND BUFFALOES 38

CHAPTER IV

THE VILLAGE DAIRY 56

CHAPTER V

THE TI DAIRY 83

CHAPTER VI

BUFFALO MIGRATIONS 123

CHAPTER VII

ORDINATION CEREMONIES 144

CHAPTER VIII

SPECIAL DAIRY CEREMONIES 166

CHAPTER IX

THE TODA GODS 182 [x]

CHAPTER X

PRAYER 213

CHAPTER XI

THE DAIRY RITUAL 231

CHAPTER XII

DIVINATION AND MAGIC 249

CHAPTER XIII

SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS 274

CHAPTER XIV

BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD CEREMONIES 313

CHAPTER XV

FUNERAL CEREMONIES 337

CHAPTER XVI

FUNERAL CEREMONIES (continued) 372

CHAPTER XVII

SACRED DAYS AND NUMBERS 405

CHAPTER XVIII

SACRED PLACES AND OBJECTS 417

CHAPTER XIX

THE TODA RELIGION 442

CHAPTER XX

GENEALOGIES AND POPULATION 461

CHAPTER XXI

KINSHIP 483

CHAPTER XXII

MARRIAGE 502 [xi]

CHAPTER XXIII

SOCIAL ORGANISATION 540

CHAPTER XXIV

ARTS AND AMUSEMENTS 570

CHAPTER XXV

LANGUAGE 602

CHAPTER XXVI

PERSONAL NAMES 619

CHAPTER XXVII

RELATIONS WITH OTHER TRIBES 628

CHAPTER XXVIII

THE CLANS OF THE TODAS 643

CHAPTER XXIX

TEIVALIOL AND TARTHAROL 679

CHAPTER XXX

THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE TODAS 693

APPENDIX I 719

APPENDIX II—BIBLIOGRAPHY 731

APPENDIX III—LIST OF VILLAGES 734

APPENDIX IV—LIST OF PLANTS 738

GLOSSARY 741

INDEX 749

GENEALOGICAL TABLES. [xiii]

[Contents]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG.		PAGE
1.	Toda Man. Full Face	19
2.	Toda Man. Side Face	20
3.	Toda Woman. Full Face	21
4.	Toda Woman. Side Face	22
5.	The Village of Taradr, showing two Dairies in the Foreground and three Houses in the Background	25
6.	The Village of Taradr, showing the Houses surrounded by a Wall, in which there is one Opening in the Middle	27
7.	The chief House of the Village of Kiudr	28
8.	The Village of Peivòrs, showing a Double Hut (in the Background). The two Buildings on the Left are Dairies, and the Structure in the Centre is a Calf-House	29
9.	A Toda Man, Siriar (20), with his Wife and Child, showing the ordinary Method of wearing the ‘Putkuli’	30
10.	Kòdrner performing the Salutation called ‘Kaimukhti.’ His Right Arm is bared (‘Kevenarut’), and he has removed his Turban	31
11.	Women Pounding and Sifting. The Broom is on the Ground to the Right	33
12.	The ‘Kalmelpudithti’ Salutation taking place at the Village of Nòdrs. On the Left is the House; on the Right is the less important Dairy of the Village (the ‘Tarvali’), and in Front of it is the Stone called ‘Menkars’	35
13.	The Conical Dairy of Nòdrs. The Stone at the Right-Hand End of the Wall is the ‘Teidrtolkars’	44
14.	The lower part of the Conical Dairy of Nòdrs, which is hidden by the Wall in Fig. 13. The ‘Wursol’ is shown eating ‘Al’ from a Leaf-Plate	46
15.	Òd (26) Churning	51
16.	The morning Milking at the Village of Molkush. In the Background is a modern ‘Tu’ made of Wooden Palings	53
17.	A Milking Scene	54
18.	The chief Dairy Vessels [xiv]	59
19.	The ‘Wursol’ of Nòdrs carrying the ‘Adimu’ and ‘Patatpun’ to fetch Water	63
20.	The ‘Palikartmokh’ Saluting the Threshold of the Dairy at Kiudr, ‘Pavnersatiti’	65
21.	The ‘Kudrpali’ of Kars, with the ‘Kudrpalikartmokh’ standing on the Wall. In the Foreground is the Mound called ‘Imudrikars.’ In the Background on the Right is the Calf-House	67
23.	The ‘Wursol’ of Kars, Kernpisi (56), standing by the side of his Dairy	75
24.	The ‘Kugvali’ of Taradr. On its Left is the ‘Kwotars,’ and on the extreme Right, under the Tree, is the ‘Kush.’ The flat Stone to the Right of the ‘Kugvali’ is the ‘Püdrshtikars’	77
25.	The ‘Poh’ of Kanòdrs. The two Walls are shown	80
26.	Showing the General Plan of the Ti Dairy	87
27.	The ‘Palol’ Karkievan, saluting at Mòdr. He is standing in the ‘Pepkarmus.’ The Building next to the ‘Palol’ is the ‘Ti poh’; that on the Right is the ‘Karenpoh’ and between it and the ‘Ti poh’ can be seen the Hut where the Inhabitants of the ‘Ti mad’ sleep	95
28.	To show the Attitude adopted by the ‘Palol’ when Praying	96
29.	To show the Method of carrying the Contents of the Dairy. The boy Kalmad (64) is carrying the ‘Patatpur’; Karsüln (15) the ‘Ertatpur.’ In front of Kalmad is the entrance of the Pen at Kars called ‘Althftu’	125
30.	1. A. The ‘Madth.’ B. A ‘Patat.’ C. Another ‘Patat.’ D. The ‘Parskadrvenmu.’ E. The ‘Irkartpun.’ 2. A. The axe. B. The fire-sticks. C. The ‘Majpariv.’ D. The ‘Pòlmachok.’ E. The ‘Ertatpun.’ F. A ‘Tek.’ G. The lamp	127
31.	The Dairy of Kiudr with the ‘Palikartmokh’ Etamudri (58); on the Right of the Dairy above and to the Left of the head of Etamudri is the Stone called ‘Neurzülnkars,’ by which the ‘Patatmani’ is laid	129
32.	The ‘Neurzülnkars’ of Kiudr, by the side of which the ‘Ertatmani’ are laid	130
33.	The four ‘Neurzülnkars’ at Mòdr. Behind the Stones on the Right is Karkievan, the ‘Palol’ of the ‘Tiir’; on the Left is Nerponers, the ‘Palol’ of the ‘Warsir’; in the Centre is the ‘Kaltmokh,’ Katsog, carrying a sickle-shaped Knife	141
34.	Punatvan (53) drinking during his Ordination as ‘Palikartmokh’ of Karia	146
35.	Imitation Buffalo Horns	190
36.	Midjkudr and Mongudrvan Divining at a Funeral [xv]	253
37.	Punatvan and Pichievan attempting to make Fire at the ‘Erkumptthpimi’ Ceremony	277
38.	Punatvan uttering the ‘Erkumptthpimi’ Prayer. He is holding the ‘Erkumptthkud,’ and one of the ‘Tudr’ Leaves in his hand can be distinctly seen	279
39.	Stroking the back of the Calf with the ‘Toashtitudr.’ Punatvan is beginning the third Movement, and one of the Branches of Leaves can be seen on the Ground behind the Calf	280
40.	Punatvan and Pichievan cutting up the Calf. In the Background Kòdrner is sharpening up the ‘Ko’	281
41.	Roasting the pieces of the Calf	283
42.	The ‘Irnörtkars’ at Kars. In the Background is the ‘Wursuli’	299
43.	Gap in the Wall at Nòdrs through which the Calf is driven at the ‘Irnörtiti’ Ceremony	301
44.	The ‘Nersatiti’ Salutation	304
45.	The ‘Puzhars’ at Molkush	314
46.	Tersveli sitting at the Door of the ‘Puzhars’ at Karia with her face turned from the Sun	325
47.	Sintagars drinking at the ‘Marthk maj atpimi’ Ceremony. The boy, Pongudr, is sitting behind her	328
48.	Funeral Hut round which women are lamenting. Several pairs are pressing their foreheads together. The Hut is not within a stone circle, showing that the Funeral is not being held at an old Funeral Place	339
49.	The ‘Puzhutpimi’ Ceremony. In the Centre is the Corpse. The foremost man on the Left is kneeling down preparatory to throwing Earth	346
50.	The ‘Puzhutpimi’ Ceremony. Throwing Earth backwards on the Corpse	347
51.	The Wooden ‘Teiks’ at Inikitj	350
52.	Leading the Buffalo to be Killed	353
53.	The Corpse by the head of the dying Buffalo	355
54.	Saluting the dead Buffalo	357
55.	The Mourners round the Body	358
56.	Kotas playing Music at a Toda Funeral	364
57.	Keinba and Perpakh; the former is holding in his hand the imitation Bow and Arrow and has his Cloak over his Head	393
58.	Bough of the ‘Tudr’ Tree. (From Marshall.)	434
59.	The Memorial of Keirevan	440
60.	Kuriolv and Pilimurg	552
61.	Showing Methods of wearing the Toda Garments and of doing the Hair	573
62.	Tilipa (12) wearing his Hair long on account of a vow made at a Hindu Temple [xvi]	575
63 and 64.	To show Method of Shaving the Head of a Child	577
65.	Karol (64), the ‘Wursol’ of Taradr, making Fire	582
66.	To show a Stage in the construction of a Hut	584
67.	(From Breeks).—The first Man on the Left is holding a Bow and Arrow; the second a Club (probably the ‘Nanmakud’) in his Right Hand, and the ‘Tadri’ in his Left; the third Man is carrying a Club, and the fourth Man is playing the ‘Buguri’	587
68.	(From Breeks).—The five Tribes of the Nilgiri Hills	629
69.	A Badaga greeting a Toda	631
70.	A view of Nòdrs. The Stone in the Foreground on the Left is the ‘Nerovkars’; that on the Right is the ‘Uteiks.’ In the Background in the Centre is an old ‘Tu.’ The lower part of the Conical Dairy can be seen between the Boy and the ‘Uteiks’	646
71.	The Stones at Pishkwosht called ‘Teuar’	657
72.	The Village of Umgas, showing the ‘Nadrkkars’ in the Centre. Behind the Stones is the ‘Poh’ of this Village, and on its Right are the Dwelling-Huts	673
73.	Plan of ‘Etudmad’	689
74.	Plan of Ancient Toda Villages	690
75.	(From Breeks).—A Cairn on the Nilgiri Hills	711
76.	Various objects found in the Nilgiri Cairns, taken from Breeks	713

[xvii]

[Contents]

PHONETIC SYSTEM

The following is the phonetic system which has been used in this book. The use of many of the signs is more fully described in Chapter XXV.

Vowels.

â,	the a of father.	ò,	the aw of law.
a,	the u of hut.	û,	the oo of moon.
ä,	the a of hat.	u,	the u of full.
ê,	the ei of their.	ü,	the German vowel.
e,	the e of met.	ai,	the i of bite.
î,	the ee of meet.	au,	the ou of house.
i,	the i of hit.	ei,	the a of date.
ô,	the o of post.	eu,	the French diphthong.
o,	the o of pot.	oi,	the oy of boy.
ö,	the o of word.

Consonants.

b,		as in English.
ch,		the ch of church.
d,		used in the text for the English sound and also for the lingual consonant ḍ.1
f,		as in English.
g,		the g of sing.
gg,		the g of finger.
gh,		the ch of ich.
h,		used for a sound of doubtful nature (see p. 611).
j,		as in English.
k,		as in English.
kh,		the ch of auch.
l,		used in the text for the English sound and for the lingual consonant ḷ.[xviii]
m,		as in English.
n,		as in English.
ñ,		a nasal n, as in French.
p,		as in English.
r,
s,		a sound resembling the English s.
sh,		as in English.
t,		as in English and also for the lingual ṭ.
th		the th both of though and throw.
v,		as in English.
w,
z,		the z of zeal.
zh,		the si of occasion.

Sounds represented by ch, s, sh, and th, very frequently inserted euphonically in Toda words, have usually been omitted. I have also omitted the signs showing the long vowels whenever a word occurs frequently throughout the book, and the glossary should be consulted to ascertain the correct method of pronouncing such words. Similarly, Appendices III and IV should be consulted to ascertain the proper pronunciation of the names of places and plants.

I do not use the plurals of Toda words, either in the English form or in that proper to the Toda language; thus, I write “the two palol” and not “the two palols” or “the two palolam.”

[Contents]

Map.

The names printed in the same type as Kârs are those of Toda villages; the names in italics, as Nanjanad are those of Badaga villages; the names in small black type, as Ootacamund are those of towns with a general population, or of dâk bungalows. [1]

1 One of the most frequent consonantal sounds in the Toda language is dr which in the text always stands for ḍr; when d comes before sh, it also represents the lingual sound. In both cases the ḍ was hardly appreciated by my ear, and the European will perhaps most nearly imitate the Toda sound if he pronounces dr and dsh as r and sh. ↑

The Todas

About This Book

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Todas

THE TODAS

PREFACE

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PHONETIC SYSTEM

Map.