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Wood and Forest

Chapter 117: INDEX.
By William Noyes
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About This Book

The text explains wood anatomy and growth, surveys physical and mechanical properties, and presents practical methods for measuring and identifying common timbers. It offers species accounts with distinguishing characters and typical uses, maps and descriptions of forest distribution and composition in North America, and a consideration of forest structure as a living organism. Pests, fungal diseases, and factors leading to forest exhaustion are examined alongside conservation and utilization issues. Practical guidance on timber selection, drying, and working practices is supported by identification keys, illustrations, and bibliographic references for students, foresters, and craftsmen.

a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 1. Represented in this country only by P. resinosa.

b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 2. P. taeda, palustris, etc., including most of our "hard" and "yellow" pines.

Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections.

a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.—Group 3. P. strobus, lambertiana, and other true white pines.

b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. Group 4. P. parryana, and other nut pines, including also P. balfouriana.

II.—Ring-Porous Woods.

(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)

A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.  
1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.  
a. Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.  
a'. Color of radial section not yellow. Ash.
b'. Color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized. Osage Orange.
b. Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30. Catalpa.
2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section. Sassafras.
3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.  
a. Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown. Black Locust.
b. Heavy; medium hard to hard.  
a'. Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown. Red Mulberry.
b'. Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-wood cherry red. Coffee Tree.
4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon. Honey Locust.
B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section.  
1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed. Hackberry.
2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood grayish to reddish white. Elms.
C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).  
1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible. Chestnut.
2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous. Oak.
D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)  
1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-wood light reddish brown. Hickory.
2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood blackish. Persimmon.

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.

Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together with its darker brown color.

Fig. 131. Wood of Coffee Tree.

The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest.

Fig. 132. A, black ash; B, white ash; C, green ash.

The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):

1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.  
a. The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the ring. White Ash.
b. The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer wood. Green Ash.
2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.  
a. Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm. Red Ash.
b. Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous. Black Ash.

In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard.

Fig. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (For white oak see fig. 129, p. 294.)

Fig. 134. Wood of Chestnut.

Fig. 135. Wood of Hickory.

III.—Diffuse-Porous Woods.

(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may seem to belong here.)

A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.  
1. Heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal section) chocolate brown. Black Walnut.
2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown. Butternut.
B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood). Cherry.
C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.  
1. Broad pith rays present.  
a. All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split. Sycamore.
b. Only part of the pith rays broad.  
a'. Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous; wood reddish white to reddish. Beech.
b'. Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish. Blue Beech.
2. No broad pith rays present.  
a. Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.  
a'. Wood hard.  
a". Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer summer wood. Maple.
b". Color white, without reddish tinge. Holly.
b'. Wood soft to very soft.  
a". Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between pith rays.  
a'". Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge in heart-wood. Tulip Poplar.
  Cucumber Tree.
b.'" Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to dark reddish brown. Sweet Gum.
b". Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white to very light brown. Basswood.
b. Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier, plainly visible.  
a'. Pores indistinct to the naked eye.  
a". Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even on the radial section. Buckeye.
b". Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith rays conspicuous on the radial section. Sour Gum.
b'. Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish specks on the cross-section; sap-wood whitish, heart-wood reddish Birch.
D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.  
1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky luster. Cottonwood (Poplar).

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful.

Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distinction is not always possible.

1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker. Cherry Birch and Yellow Birch.
2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight. Canoe or Paper Birch.

Fig. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.

The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:

1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous. Sugar Maple.
2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.  
a. Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and commonly spotted on cross-section. Red Maple.
b. Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored. Silver Maple.

Fig. 137. Wood of Maple.

Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:

1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy splitting, dark brown heart. Red Elm.
2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.  
a. Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so. White Elm.
b. Pores of spring wood small to minute.  
a'. Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain. Rock Elm.
b'. Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate spaces. Winged Elm.
c. Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous wood. Cedar Elm.

Fig. 138. Wood of Elm. a red elm; b, white elm; c, winged elm.

Fig. 139. Walnut. p.r., pith rays; c.l., concentric lines; v, vessels or pores; su. w., summer wood; sp. w., spring wood.

Fig. 140. Wood of Cherry.

INDEX.

A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | Y