Part 1. Introductory. Mysteries and devotion of holy-week—Palm-Sunday, entry of Christ into Jerusalem—of Julius II into Rome—Sixtus V and Captain Bresca—triumphant return of Pius VII to Rome, contrasted with ancient Roman triumphs. Part 2. Descriptive, Palm-sunday—lights used at mass etc.—vestments—ubbidienza, blessing of the palms, benedictions, holy water, incense—distribution of the palms—order in which the prelates and others receive them—solemn procession with palms, sedia gestatoria—ceremonies peculiar to this procession—its antiquity—High mass, its peculiar ceremonies on palm-sunday—Passio—Cardinal great Penitentiary at S. John Lateran's.
"Hosanna to the son of David: blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord, Hosanna in the highest". Matt. XXI, 9.
P. I. Holy-week
The sufferings and death of Jesus Christ are the mysteries which the catholic church commemorates during holy week. "On these days" says S. John Chrysostom (in Ps. CXCIV) "was the tyranny of the devil overthrown, sin and its curse were taken away, heaven was opened and made accessible". It was then becoming that christians should consecrate these days of mercy, of grace and salvation to exercises of penance, devotion, and thanksgiving. The imposing liturgy of the Roman church is at this season more than usually solemn; and it is our task to describe, and endeavour to trace to their origin, its varied ceremonies.
Palm-Sunday, Christ's entry into Jerusalem.
Palm-sunday is so called from the commemoration of our blessed Saviour's entry into Jerusalem, when, according to St. John (XII, 13) "a great multitude took branches of palm-trees, and went forth to meet him, and cried: "Hosanna, blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord". Thus when Simon Maccabee subdued Jerusalem, he entered it "with thanksgiving and branches of palm-trees, and harps, and cymbals, and hymns and canticles, because the great enemy was destroyed out of Israel". 1 Macc. XIII. The entry of our divine Redeemer therefore was one of triumph: but it was also the entry of a king into his capital: for "many spread their garments in the way" (Mark XI, 8), as when Jehu was elected king, (4 Kings IX, 13), the Israelites spread their garments under his feet. Thus also Plutarch relates of Cato of Utica, that the soldiers regretting the expiration of his authority with many tears and embraces spread their garments, where he passed on foot.
Pope Julius II returning to Rome after the siege of Mirandola distributed palms to the Roman court at S. Maria del Popolo; and then rode in triumphal procession to the Vatican passing under seven arches adorned with representations of his extraordinary and heroic deeds26.
Sixtus V and Captain Bresca.
When Sixtus V. undertook to erect in the Piazza di San Pietro the ponderous egyptian obelisk27, which formerly adorned Nero's circus at the Vatican, he forbade on pain of death that any one should speak lest the attention of the workmen should be taken off from their arduous task. A naval officer of S. Remo, who happened to be present, foreseeing that the ropes would take fire, cried out "acqua alle funi". He was immediately arrested by the Swiss guards, as we see him represented in the small fresco in the Vatican library, and was conducted before the Pontiff. Sixtus shewed that his severity was based on justice; for instead of punishing the transgressor of his orders, he offered him the choice of his own reward. They who have observed the great abundance of palms which grow in the neighbourhood of S. Remo, on the coast between Nice and Genoa, will not be surprised to hear, that the first wish of the gallant captain was to enjoy the privilege of supplying the pontifical chapel with palms. The Pope granted him this exclusive right and it is still enjoyed by one of his family.
Return of Pius VII to Rome.
When the meek and benevolent Pius VII was returning to Rome from exile and captivity, Dr. Bresca, one of the captain's descendants, contrived, though not without great risk, to convey to Rome the choicest palms of S. Remo and Bordighera. At the house of his friend Viale half a mile outside the Porta del Popolo, he assembled twenty five orfanelli dressed in their white cassocks, and forty-five verginelle. When the carriage of the beloved Pontiff approached, this double choir of children appeared, bearing palms in their hands and singing joyous canticles of benediction but I must describe this lovely scene in the melodious language of the south. "Ciascuno di essi (says Cancellieri) recava in mano una di queste palme di color d'oro altissime e cadenti come tante vaghissime piume. Sei zitelle sostenevano de'galanti panieri di freschissimi fiori pendenti dal loro collo, con nastri bianchi e gialli, relativi allo stendardo Pontificio. Quindi tutti si schierarono in buon ordine sulle due ale delta strada, e mentre le ragazze versavano graziosamente a mani piene da' loro canestrelli la verzura ed i fiori, quella selva ondeggiante di palme, tributate al trionfo del S. Padre dal candore e dall' innocenza, sorprese con la novità di uno spettacolo, che non potè a meno d'intenerire, e di muovere tutti gli astanti".
If we now look back for a moment to the triumphs of the pagan emperors, well may we bless God for the change which the religion of Christ has wrought in this city. After they had let loose war, and famine, and pestilence, to prey upon hapless nations, they ascended the Capitol to offer incense with polluted hands to their profane gods; and meantime the groans of the dying and unpitied princes, whom they had reserved to decorate their triumph, ascended from the scala Gemonia to call down the vengeance of heaven upon their oppressors. But while the pacific and holy vicar of Christ returns in triumph to his capital, the lips of babes and sucklings sing his praises, as they did those of his Divine Master, and he implores heaven to shower down benedictions on his enemies as well as his beloved children.
P. II Papal chapel on palm-sunday.
Lights used at mass, etc.
At about 9 o'clock on palm-sunday morning the Cardinals, Prelates and others assemble near the chapel of the Pieta at S. Peter's, as at present the solemn service takes place in that basilica, and not as formerly in the Sixtine chapel. The crucifix over the altar is veiled, in token of the mourning of the church over her divine spouse's sufferings28. On the altar are six lighted candles, and other torches are brought in after the Sanctus of the Mass, and held till after the elevation, in honour of the B. Sacrament, by four acoliti ceroferarii29.
sacred vestments
As the pope is to bless and distribute the palms, and a solemn procession is to take place, the Cardinals put on their sacred vestments, viz. all of them the amice, the cardinal bishops the surplice and the cope, the priests the chasuble, and the deacons a chasuble shorter in front than that of the priests. The auditors of the Rota, Cherici di Camera, Votanti, and Abbreviatori put on a cotta or supplice. The bishops and mitred abbots wear the cope, and the Penitenzieri or confessors of St. Peter's, the chasuble. The copes of the cardinal bishops are ornamented with a formale, adorned with three large bosses or projections of pearls arranged in a perpendicular line, while the Pope's are in a triangular order, evidently alluding, to the blessed Trinity. As this is a day of mourning, the sacred vestments are purple.
ubbidienza.
Thus attired and holding their mitres the Cardinals remain standing while the Pope is vested by the assistant Cardinal-deacons who put on His Holiness the amice, alb, girdle, stole, red cope, formale or clasp, and mitre. All then move in procession towards the high-altar in the order observed in the procession of the palms, as described below:30 the Pope descends from His sedia gestatoria to adore the Holy Sacrament with the Cardinals etc. The procession then goes to the high-altar; and having prayed for a short time before it, the Pope goes to the throne,31 and there receives the ubbidienza or homage of all the cardinals present, who in turn kiss His right hand covered with the cope. This ceremony which takes place at all solemn offices, except on good friday, and at masses for the dead, bears some resemblance to the old homage of feudal times32.
Blessing of the palms.
Some palms are arranged on the altar. The Pope's chief Sacristan, who is a bishop chosen from the Augustinian order bears one, and kneels on the steps of the throne between the deacon and subdeacon, who bear two larger palms. His Holiness reads the usual prayers over the palms, sprinkles them with holy water, and incenses them three times.
Distribution of the palms.
When the palms have been blessed33, the Cardinal Dean receives from the governor of Rome and presents to the Pope those three palms, which were borne by M. Sagrista, the deacon and subdeacon. One of these is held during the service by the prince assistant at the throne, the other two are delivered to the care of M. Coppiere, one of the Camerieri segreti partecipanti: the shortest is carried by the Pope in the procession. An embroidered apron is now placed over the Pope's knees, and the cardinals in turn receive a palm from Him, kissing the palm, his right hand and knee. The bishops present kiss the palm which they receive and his right knee: and the mitred abbots and Penitenzieri kiss the palm and his foot34, as do all who come after them in the following order, which is observed also on good-friday at the kissing of the cross, and it is also on candlemas-day and ash-wednesday.
The Governor, the Prince assistant, the Uditore della Camera, the Treasurer, the Maggiordomo, the Apostolic protonotaries; the Generals of Religious Orders, the Conservatori and Prior of the Caporioni, the Maestro del S. Ospizio, the Uditori di Rota, the Maestro del S. Palazzo, the Votanti di Segnatura, the Abbreviatori del Parco maggiore, the priest, deacon, and subdeacon who assist the cardinal who is to celebrate mass, the Masters of ceremonies, the Camerieri segreti and d'onore, the Consistorial advocates, the Cappellani segreti, d'onore and comuni, the Ajutanti di camera, the bussolanti, the Procuratori generali of religious orders, the Procuratori di Collegio, the singers, the clerks of the papal chapel, the cardinal's caudatarii, the ostiarii, the mace-bearers, some students of the German college, and in fine such noblemen and gentlemen as are admitted on this occasion to receive a palm from His Holiness, who is assisted as usual by two Card. deacons.
During the distribution of the palms, the anthems Pueri Hebræorum etc. are sung by the choir; and when it is finished, the Pope washes His hands, and says the usual concluding prayer: the prince stationed at the throne brings the water, and the Cardinal Dean presents the towel to His Holiness.
Solemn procession.
The Pope then puts incense into the thurible for the procession, and the first Card. Deacon turning towards the people says according to the old formula Let us proceed in peace: the choir answers, in the name of Christ. Amen'. The procession, in which the blessed palms are carried, moves round S. Peter's, in the following order, which is observed also for the most part on holy thursday and good friday. The Procuratori di Collegio,35 Procuratori generali, the Bussolanti, the Ajutanti di Camera, Cappellani comuni and segreti, the Consistorial advocates, the Camerieri d' onore, and segreti, the singers, the Abbreviatori, Votanti di Segnatura, Cherici di Camera, Uditori di Rota, the Thurifer, (Votante di Segnatura), the Subdeacon (Uditore di Rota) who carries the cross ornamented with a small palm, between two acolythes (Votanti di Segnatura) carrying candles, the Penitenzieri, the mitred abbots, bishops and the Cardinal deacons, priests and bishops all wearing their mitres.36 The Pope is preceded by many officers of his guards (who go to the throne towards the end of the distribution of palms), the Maestro del S. Ospizio, the Conservatori, Senator and Governor of Rome. His Holiness is carried on his Sedia gestatoria37 under a canopy supported by 8 Referendarii (prelates of the tribunal of Segnatura) between the flabelli carried by two of His Camerieri. He is followed by the dean of the Rota (whose duty it is to bear His mitre) between two camerieri segreti (who as well as two Auditors of the Rota bear His train when occasion requires), by the Uditore della Camera, the Treasurer, Maggiordomo, Protonotaries and Generals of religious orders.
During the procession the choir sings the anthem, Cum appropinquaret etc. When the procession is in the portico, two soprano singers reenter the basilica, and shut the door: then turning towards the door, they sing the first verse of the hymn Gloria, laus et honor38 and the other verses alternately with the choir, which remains without. The subdeacon knocks at the gate with the cross, and it is immediately opened; the procession returns into the church, and the choir sings the concluding anthems.
its antiquity.
The solemn commemoration, which we have described, of Christ's triumphant entry into Jerusalem, could never have taken place during times of persecution: nor did it originate immediately after Constantine had ensured peace to the church. Martene (De ant. Eccl. Rit. lib. IV, c. 20) could find no mention of it before the 8th or 9th century, when Amalarius says "In memory of this we are accustomed to carry palm-branches, and cry Hosanna". Merati however, in his notes to Gavant, considers that he has found traces of it in the Gregorian and Gelasian sacramentaries, and in a Roman calendar of the beginning of the fifth century39 and his opinion is adopted by Benedict XIV. The ceremonies of the church of Jerusalem on this day were a still closer imitation of the entry of Christ into that city.
When the procession is ended, the cardinals, bishops, and mitred abbots take off their sacred vestments and the prelates their surplices, and they all resume their respective cappe; the Penitenzieri retire, and mass is celebrated by a cardinal of the order of priests. Having already given an account not only of low mass, but also of the additional ceremonies of high mass, as celebrated in the papal chapel, we shall here mention those only which are peculiar to palm-sunday.
At those words of the epistle (which is sung as usual by the subdeacon), "in the name of Jesus let every knee bow", the whole assembly kneels to adore their divine Redeemer, who became obedient unto death for our salvation. The affecting account of His sufferings and death is then sung by three priests40 belonging to the pontifical choir, and habited as deacons in alb and stole. The history itself is sung by a tenor voice, the words, of our Saviour by a bass, and those of any other single voice by a contralto, called the ancilla, as he sings the words of the maid to S. Peter: the choir sings the words of the multitude41. The church, mourning over the sufferings of her divine Spouse, does not allow the incense, lights, or the benediction and salutation usual before the gospel; but the palms are borne to signify the triumphs consequent on His death as they are also from the elevation till after the communion. All stand up as usual from respect to the holy gospel ("as servants before their Lord" Amalarius) but kneel for a short time at the words "Jesus crying with a loud voice yielded up the ghost", to adore that God of love who died for mankind. The latter part of the gospel is sung in the usual chant by the deacon, but without the customary lights42. At the offertory is sung the first part of the beautiful hymn Stabat Mater: the music is Palestrina's, and is justly and highly panegyrised by Baini; it has been published by Dr. Burney. Both the introit and communion are sung without, and the offertory with, counterpoint: the Kyrie eleison, Gradual and tract, in plain chant. The Benedictus qui venit is usually very beautiful. At the end of the mass, as there has been no sermon, the Card. celebrant announces from the altar the Pope's usual grant to all present of an indulgence43 or remission of the temporal punishment due for past sins, whose guilt has been already remitted.
indulgences
When the mass is ended, the palms are carried home by those who have received them, and are preserved with respect. Two larger than the rest are kept until the ascension, in the sacristy called the Letto dei Paramenti because anciently the aged Pontiffs after their fatiguing walk to the stational churches used to repose on a letto or bed prepared for them in the sacristy, where they afterwards put on the paramenti or vestments. The paschal candle also, an emblem of Christ the true light, as we shall afterwards see is removed on the day of the ascension: this circumstance may explain the above-mentioned custom.
Cardinal penitentiary at S. John Lateran's.
In the afternoon of palm-sunday, the Cardinal great Penitentiary goes in state to S. John Lateran's. He is met, before he enters their college, by the minor penitentiaries, who at this basilic are Franciscans, minori osservanti. Having sprinkled those present with holy water, he goes up to their private oratory44 in the Lateran palace, whither he is escorted by the prelates and other ministers of the apostolic Penitenzieria. After a short prayer, he proceeds to the library, where he holds the Segnatura or tribunal for signing documents relating to his office, and afterwards enters the basilic of St. John Lateran's, where he is received by four canons. Here seated at his tribunal of penance, he touches with his rod the heads of the prelates, ministers and others who approach to him; and for this act of humiliation they receive an indulgence, or remission of the canonical penance, of 100 days. He also hears the confessions of any persons who may choose to present themselves: but the solution of difficult cases and absolution from crimes reserved to his jurisdiction may be obtained without confessing to his Eminence on so public an occasion45.
The ceremonies, which we have described, are designed to honour our divine Redeemer, whose actions and sufferings are thereby commemorated, and at the same time to excite sentiments of devotion in the hearts of His servants. Here ought the catholic to exercise faith, hope, love, and contrition for his sins: and all, of whatever country or creed they may be, who are admitted with hospitality and liberality to witness the solemn and imposing service, if they do not feel such noble sentiments, ought at least to observe that external decorum, which the season, the place, the hierarchy, and above all the commemoration of the sufferings of the God of charity will dictate to every well-educated and well-principled mind. It is to be lamented, that not only the devotion of Catholics is disturbed, but their feelings also are occasionally insulted in their own house of worship by the unbecoming remarks of individuals—but enough: "you have not so learned Christ: if yet you have heard him, and have been taught in him, as the truth is in Jesus". Ephes. IV, 20, 21. If on this day even the inhabitants of Jerusalem received Him with triumph and jubilee, let us His disciples and children offer to Him the best tribute in our power of love praise and adoration.
Footnote 27: (return)According to Champollion, it was originally erected in Heliopolis by Ramesses 7th son of the great Ramesses or Sesostris; Pliny says by Nuncoreus son of Sesostris. Caligula transported it to Rome, and placed it in the circus afterwards called Nero's, where it remained standing till the time of Sixtus V.
Footnote 28: (return)It was customary in Lent, says St. Audoenus, to cover with a linen veil the tomb of Eligius to conceal the brightness of the gold and the splendour of the gems". Vita S. Eligii l. 2. c. 40. Thus does the church at this season put off her costly nuptial robes, and vest herself in weeds of deepest mourning. The time for veiling the crucifix and images has varied at different periods. The Saturday before passion-sunday is now the first, and holy Saturday the last day, of this observance.
Footnote 29: (return)S. Isidore (A.D. 600.) observes, that acolythes are called in Latin Ceroferarii "from their carrying wax tapers when the gospel is to be read or sacrifice is to be offered". In the eleventh century Micrologus testifies "that Mass, according to the Ordo Romanus, was never celebrated without lights, even in the day time, as a type of the light of Christ". To this custom we shall recur in the following chapter.
Footnote 30: (return)Pietro de Marca maintains, that the crucifix borne before the Pope was substituted in place of the labarum or standard carried before the emperors. That of Constantine had the form of a cross, and was surmounted with XP the first letters of Christ's name, Eus. In Vita Const. l. 4.
Footnote 31: (return)I shall not speak of some ancient ceremonies of holy week which have fallen into disuse, such as the custom of carrying the gospel or the B. Sacrament in triumphant procession on Palm-Sunday, and others alluded to by Cancellieri and described by Martene, De Antiq. Eccl. Rit.
Footnote 32: (return)In times of schism caused by antipopes it was a practice of the utmost importance. Thus we read in Baronius' Annals A.D. 1160, that when the antipope Cardinal Octavianus, who assumed the name of Victor, had been illegitimately elected, the chapter of St. Peter's came immediately to the feet of the said Pope Victor, and obeyed "obedivit" and the clergy and people paid due reverence to him, and a great multitude in like manner obeyed: "the rectors also came to his feet, and paid obedience and reverence". Then follows a long list of the clergy of various Roman churches, all of whom it is said that they obeyed. Thus,
"The Lateran prior and his canons obeyed. The clergy of the patriarchal church of S. Mary Major's obeyed etc."
This obedience was evidently an external sign of their acknowledging Victor as Pope in place of Alexander, the legitimate pontiff. Anciently the Pope received the homage of the deacons in the sacristy; they afterwards went out of the sacristy to put on their dalmatics. Cancellieri de Secretariis T.I. In the sacristy the Pope gave the peace to the Bishops, Cardinals, Prefect, Senator, and other lay princes according to the canon Benedict, Cencius Camerarius and Cajetan. The ordines Romani mention the bowing of the Subdeacon at the knees of the Pontiff, and the kissing of his hand by the priests, the archdeacon and secundarius De secretariis T. I, p. 409.
Footnote 33: (return)Many forms of benediction of persons and things taken from ancient Pontificals and manuscript rituals may be seen in Martene, De antiquis Ecclesiae Ritibus. The church generally uses holy-water and incense when blessing God's creatures, which are "sanctified by the word of God and prayer" 1 Tom. IV, 5. God had appointed water of expiation to be used by the Jews, Numbers XIX. Lustral water used to be sprinkled also by the Pagans; Terque senem flamma, ter aqua, ter sulphure purget. Ov. Met. l. 7. Anastasius says that Alexander I, who was Pope in 108 "appointed that water for sprinkling should be blessed with salt in private houses." It is mentioned also in the apostolic constitutions. Boldetti in his Cemeterii de' martiri notices the short columns supporting small vases, in corners of the chapels in the catacombs; and Bottari has published and illustrated in his Roma sotterranea an interesting fresco discovered in the catacombs of S. Agnese, and representing five figures carrying vessels closely resembling those still used for holy water; four of those figures carry branches supposed to be of the palm-tree: the fifth holds an aspergillum with which holy water is still sprinkled. A copy of this fresco may be seen also in Rock's Hierurgia, p. 668. Incense is a symbol of prayers. "Let my prayer, O Lord" we say with the Psalmist "be directed as incense in thy sight". God had appointed it to be used in the Jewish worship, and St. John says, that an "angel came and stood before the altar, having a golden censer, and there was given to him much incense, that he should offer of the prayers of all the saints upon the golden altar, which is before the throne of God: and the smoke of the incense of the prayers of the saints ascended up before God, from the hand of the angel". Apoc. VIII, 3, 5. Of the apostolic antiquity of its use the Protestant bishop Beveridge adduces proofs in his Vindication of the apostolical canons. The ancient liturgies of the east and west agree in prescribing the use of incense, and in particular at the beginning of mass, at the offertory etc. See Renaudot, Assemani, Le Brun etc. Constantine, according to Anastasius in his life of S. Silvester, gave two golden thuribles to the Lateran basilis, and a third adorned with jewels to the Baptistery. See Card. Bona, Rerum Liturgicarum lib. I, c. XXV, § 9.
Footnote 34: (return)Of the antiquity of the custom of kissing the Pope's foot we have proofs in Anastasius the librarian in the lives of Popes Constantine and Leo IV. When Valentine was elected Pope in 827, his feet were kissed by the Roman senate and people at S. John Lateran's. Numerous instances also are on record of sovereigns who have kissed the feet of the Popes, and Pouyard has written a dissertation to shew, that this custom was anterior to that of marking the papal shoes or sandals with a cross. This token of profound respect was given also to the emperors of the east at Byzantium.
Footnote 35: (return)These are distinguished lawyers habited in black cappe. For an account of the various offices above-mentioned and of their origin see The Papal Chapel, Described etc. by C.M. Baggs. Rome. 1839.
Footnote 36: (return)That crosses, candles and incense were anciently used in processions appears from S. Gregory of Tours, de Vit. Patrum, c. 13.
Footnote 37: (return)The kings and chief magistrates of ancient Rome were entitled to a sella curulis, or chair of state, which used to be placed in their chariots. Gell. III; 18. They were seated on it also at their tribunal on solemn occasions. Virgil makes old king Latinus say:
Et sellam regni trabeamque insignia nostri. Æn. XI. 334. The Romans had borrowed it from the Etruscans according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus. (Clement of Alexandria observes, That many of the rites of Etruria were imported from Asia; and Diodorus (lib. 5.) represents these insignia as derived from Lydia. See Phoebens. De Identitate Cathedræ S. Petri p. XX. seq.) It was richly adorned, conspicuum signis, according to Ovid, Pont. IV. 5, 18. In the Pope's carriage even now there is a chair of state, and to Him alone is reserved the honour of a sedia gestatoria. Pope Stephen II in 751 was carried to the basilica of Constantine on the shoulders of the Romans exulting at his election: and from this fact some derive the custom of carrying the Pope in His chair on solemn occasions.
Footnote 38: (return)This hymn is attributed to the abbot Theodulph afterwards bishop of Orleans, who lived in the 9th century. If it were true, that he sang it as the emperor Louis le debonnaire was passing by the prison, in which he was confined, and that he was in consequence liberated, we should have a historical reason for the shutting and opening of the door, and for the hymn's being sung partly inside the church. This account has however been called in question by Menard, Macri, Martene and others; and hence Pouget, and after him Benedict XIV and others are contented with a mystic reason for such ceremonies, viz, that heaven was closed to man in consequence of sin, and was opened to him by the cross of Christ.
Footnote 39: (return)In these it is called Dominica ad Palmas, Dominica in Palmis, and in the Gregorian Sacramentary mention is made, in the prayer which precedes communion, of the faithful carrying palm-branches.
Footnote 40: (return)Anciently a cardinal deacon used to read it, and to sing only the words "Eli, Eli, lamma sabachthani".
Footnote 41: (return)The author of this exquisite chant is unknown: Baini supposes that he was a member of the pontifical choir: it has been sung in the papal chapel since the middle of the 13th century. In 1585 it, together with the rest of the service of holy week, was published by Tommaso da Vittoria with the words of the people harmonised for 4 and 5 voices; his method was adopted by the papal choir, which adorns it with many traditional graces, and in particular gives occasionally, says Baini, to the words of the multitude "the irresistible force of a most robust harmony". The abbate Alfieri has published a new edition of the Passios.
Footnote 42: (return)In Africa till the time of S. Augustine, the Passion used to be read in holy week from the gospel of S. Matthew alone; but by his direction, as he mentions in his 232nd discourse, it was read every year from all the four evangelists; and this custom is still observed.
Footnote 43: (return)That God, after He has pardoned sin and consequently remitted its eternal punishment, often, if not generally, demands temporal satisfaction from the sinner, is evident from many instances in scripture, such as those of David (2 Sam. XII) of Moses (Deuteron. XXXII compare Num. XIV) to say nothing of Adam (Gen. III) and all his posterity, who endure the temporal punishment of original sin, even when its stain has been washed away by baptism. Now the church by virtue of the ample authority with which Christ has invested her (Matt. XVIII, John XX) and in particular her chief pastor (Matt. XVI) has from the beginning exercised the power of remitting the temporal punishment of actual sins. Thus S. Paul pardoned the incestuous Corinthian (2. Cor. II): in times of persecution the bishops at the request of the martyrs remitted the penance imposed on those who had fallen into idolatry (Tersul. lib. ad martyres, Euseb. Hist. Eccl. lib. V, c. 4. S. Cyprian. Epist. XIII etc.), to say nothing of canons of the 4th century which prescribe that indulgences should be granted to fervent penitents, of the crusades, and of the indulgences granted to those who contributed money for the building of S. Peter's, etc. Indulgences presuppose repentance and confession, and the performance of those good works which are prescribed as conditions necessary for their acquisition, as communion, prayers, alms etc.
Footnote 44: (return)It was built by Calixtus II, and was for two centuries and a half the Vestry of the Roman Pontiffs. It was repaired and consecrated in 1747. See Cancellieri. De Secretariis T. I, p. 342.
Footnote 45: (return)In the third century, in the time of Pope Cornelius there were priests appointed to absolve those who had fallen into idolatry; and they were called Presbyteri Pænitentium. S. Marcellus also, according to Anastasius, after the persecution raised by Diocletian, appointed in Rome titular churches, in which penance as well as baptism were administered by priests, the former sacrament is conferred by the minor penitentiaries. Pope Simplicius in fine, as we learn from the same author, destined fixed weeks at S. Peter's, S. Paul's, and S. Laurence's, to receive penitents and administer baptism. From the usual custom of Rome in such matters, Zaccaria argues that during the first five or six centuries, according to the general custom proved by Thomassin, the great penitentiary was the bishop himself of the city in which they resided. It is however certain, that in the 4th century from the numerous priests of Constantinople one was selected called a penitentiary, who took cognisance of crimes, to which public penance was annexed by the canons. At Rome also there was a cardinal penitentiary long before the fourth council of Lateran, which in 1215 prescribed that bishops should appoint penitentiaries, for Berthod priest of Constance relates in his chronicle, that in the year 1084 he was promoted to the dignity of cardinal-priest and penitentiary of the Roman church.
PART 1. Introductory. Breviary—Divine office, its origin—performed by the early Christians—ancient and modern editions of the breviary. PART 2. Descriptive. Office of Tenebræ—Matins and Lauds—extinction of the lights—meaning of this ceremony—chant, lamentations—conclusions of the office—Miserere, its music—Card. Penitentiary at S. Mary Major's. Trinità dei Pellegrini.
"I will bless the Lord at all times: his praise shall always be in my mouth". Ps. XXXIII, 2.
"He humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death, even the death of the cross". Phil. II, 8.
P. I. Breviary.
We shall not hesitate to borrow the following account of the church office contained in the Roman Breviary from a Protestant divine (Tracts of the Times no. 75). "The word Breviarum first occurs in the work of an author of the eleventh century (Micrologus) and it is used to denote a compendium or systematic arrangement of the devotional offices of the church. Till that time they were contained in several independent volumes, according to the nature of each. Such, for instance, were the Psalteria, Homilaria, Hymnaria, and the like, to be used in the service in due course. But at his memorable era, and under the auspices of the Pontiff who makes it memorable, Gregory VII, an Order was drawn up, for the use of the Roman church, containing in one all these different collections, introducing the separate members of each in its proper place, and harmonising them together by the use of rubrics.
Divine office, its origin.
"Gregory VII did but restore and harmonise these offices; which seem to have existed more or less the same in constituent parts, though not in order and system, from Apostolic times. In their present shape they are appointed for seven distinct seasons in the twenty four hours, and consist of prayers, praises and thanksgivings of various forms; and, as regards both contents and hours, are the continuation of a system of worship observed by the Apostles and their converts. As to contents, the Breviary service consists of the Psalms; of Hymns and Canticles; of Lessons and Texts from inspired and Ecclesiastical authors; of Antiphons, Verses and Responses, and Sentences; and of Collects. And analogous to this seems to have been the usage of the Corinthian Christians, whom St. Paul blames for refusing to agree in some common order of worship, when they came together, every one of them having a Psalm, or a doctrine, a tongue, a revelation, an interpretation (1 Cor. XIV, 26). On the other hand, the catholic seasons of devotion are certainly derived from apostolic usage. The Jewish observance of the third, sixth and ninth hours for prayer, was continued by the inspired founders of the Christian church. What Daniel had practised, even when the decree was signed forbidding it, "kneeling on his knees three times a day, and praying and giving thanks unto his God", S. Peter and the other Apostles were solicitous in preserving. It was when "they were all with one accord in one place", at "the third hour of the day", that the Holy Ghost came down upon them at Pentecost. It was at the sixth hour, that St. Peter "went up upon the house-top to pray" and saw the vision revealing to him the admission of the gentiles into church. And it was at the ninth hour that "Peter and John went up together into the temple", being "the hour of prayer". But though these were the more remarkable seasons of devotion, there certainly were others besides them in the first age of the church. After our Saviour's departure, the Apostles, we are informed, "all continued with one accord in prayer and supplication, with the women, and Mary the mother of Jesus, and with His brethren": and with this accords the repealed exhortation to pray together without ceasing, which occurs in St. Paul's epistles. It will be observed that he insists in one passage on prayer to the abridgment of sleep (Eph. VI, 18); and one recorded passage of his life exemplifies his precept: "And at midnight Paul and Silas prayed, and sang praises unto God, and the prisoners heard them".
In subsequent times the Hours of prayer were gradually developed from the three, or (with midnight) the four seasons above enumerated, to seven, viz. by the addition of Prime (the first hour), Vespers (the evening), and Compline (bedtime); according to the words of the Psalm, "Seven times a day do I praise Thee, because of Thy righteous judgment. Other pious and instructive reasons existed, or have since been perceived for this number".46 Thus far our Protestant author, with whose remarks we are too well pleased to go out of our way to dispute with him the truth of some other portions of his tract, which are objectionable.
Performed by the early Christians.
That the early Christians continued after the time of the apostles to observe the hours of prayer above enumerated is proved by Martene (De Ant. Eccl. Rit. T. 3) who has collected many decisive passages from the Greek and Latin Fathers. We shall content ourselves with one taken from a work on prayer by S. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage in the third century. Having mentioned Daniel's practice of praying three times a day, he observes, that it is manifest that there was something mysterious or symbolical in the ancient practice. "For the holy Ghost descended on the disciples at the third hour; at the sixth hour Peter going to the house-top was instructed by God to admit all to the grace of salvation; and the Lord, who was crucified at the sixth hour, washed away our sins with his blood at the ninth hour, and completed the victory by his passion. For us however, besides the hours anciently observed, the times and also the symbols of prayer have increased. For we must pray in the morning, to celebrate the resurrection of the Lord; also when the sun recedes and the day ceases; for Christ is the true sun and the true day, and when we pray that the light of Christ may again come upon us, we pray that his coming may impart to us the grace of eternal light: and let us who are always in Christ, that is, in the light, not cease from prayer at night". See also Dr. Cave's Primitive Christianity Part. 1, c. 9.
Editions of the breviary.
"The old Roman breviary" says the author of Tract 75 above quoted "had long before Gregory VII's time been received in various parts of Europe; and in England since the time of Gregory the great who after the pattern of Leo and Gelasius before him had been a reformer of it". The people used anciently to join with the clergy in offering this, constant tribute of praise to God; but the duty of daily reciting it is obligatory only upon the Catholic clergy, and religious orders. S. Benedict shortened it considerably, (as Grancolas observes, Com. Hist. in Brev. Rom.) New editions and emendations of it were published successively by the authority of St. Gregory VII, Nicholas III, and Clement VII, and finally the Roman Breviary at present used was restored by order of the Council of Trent, published by Pope Pius V, and revised by Clement VIII, and Urban VIII. It follows closely, as Merati observes, that first adopted by the regular-clerks in the 16th century, and resembles the edition published by Haymo, general of the Franciscans, and authorised by Nicholas III (A.D. 1278). Hence it is called by the author of Tract 75 the Franciscan Breviary. It is however founded upon the old Roman Breviary, which the Franciscans by the direction of their holy founder had adopted: for according to Rodolfo, dean of Tongres Cap. XXII, when the Popes dwelt at the Lateran, the office of the Papal chapel was much shorter than that of the other churches of Rome; it was composed by Innocent III, and was adopted by the Franciscans instituted at his time. Nicolas III ordered that all the Roman churches should use the Franciscan Breviary as reformed by Haymo, in 1241. "Our own daily service", says the above-mentioned minister of the church of England is confessedly formed upon the Breviary".
P. II. Office of Tenebræ.
Having premised thus much on the office in general, we may now return to holy-week. Besides palm-sunday, three other days in the week are particularly devoted to the commemoration of the history of our redemption; holy-thursday, because on it our Lord instituted the blessed Eucharist, and his passion began; good-friday, on which He was crucified and died; and holy saturday, on which His sacred body remained in the tomb. The church commences her solemn service of each of these days with that part of the divine office called matins and lauds, and at this time Tenebrae from the darkness with which it concludes. It used of old to be celebrated at night, as it still is by some religious communities47; but it now takes place on the afternoon preceding each of those three days. Nor is this unusual: for "the ecclesiastical day is considered to begin with the evening or Vesper service, according to the Jewish reckoning, as alluded to in the text. "In the evening and morning and at noon day will I pray, and that instantly". (Tracts of the Times, No. 75).
Matins and Lauds.
The office of Matin so called from Matuta or Aurora consists at Tenebræ of three nocturns. Each of these is composed of three appropriate psalms with their anthems, followed by three lessons taken from scripture or the fathers. Immediately after matins, Lauds or the praises of God are sung: they consist of five psalms besides the Benedictus or canticle of Zachary, to which succeeds the Miserere or 50th psalm. Some of the short prayers usually said are omitted: for the church during this season of mourning strips her liturgy as well as her altars of their usual ornaments48.
Extinction of the lights.
A triangular candlestick, upon which are placed fifteen candles, corresponding to the number of psalms recited before the Miserere, is peculiar to this solemn office, and is placed at the epistle-side of the altar. After each psalm one of the candles is extinguished by a Master of ceremonies, and after the Benedictus the candle placed on the top of the triangular candlestick is not extinguished, but is concealed behind the altar and brought out at the end of the service; while that canticle is sung, the six candles on the altar also are extinguished, as well as those above the cancellata or rails49.
Meaning of this ceremony.
Lamps and candelabra were presented to the sanctuary by the faithful during the first ages of persecution; and in more tranquil times to the basilicas by Constantine and others who erected or dedicated them. They were lighted, as S. Jerome observes, in the day time "not to drive away darkness, but as a sign of joy": and therefore the custom of gradually extinguishing them at the office of Tenebrae we may justly consider with Amalarius as a sign of mourning, or of the sympathy of the church with her divine and suffering Spouse. The precise number of lights is determined by that of the psalms, which is the same as at ordinary matins of three nocturns.
The custom of concealing behind the altar during the last part of the office the last and most elevated candle, and of bringing it forward burning at the end of the service, is a manifest allusion to the death and resurrection of Christ, whose light, as Micrologus observes, is represented by our burning tapers. "I am the light of the world". John VIII. 1250. In the same manner the other candles extinguished one after another may represent the prophets successively put to death before their divine Lord: and if we consider that the psalms of the old Testament are recited at the time, this explanation may appear more satisfactory than others, which would refer them to the blessed Virgin, the apostles and disciples of Christ51. In the triangular form of the candlestick is contained an evident allusion to the B. Trinity. This candlestick is mentioned in a MS. Ordo of the 7th century published by Mabillon.
Chant, lamentations.
The anthems and psalms, with the exception of the Miserere which is the last psalm at Lauds, most of the lessons and other parts of the office, are sung in plain chant. From the middle of the 15th century the three lamentations or first three lessons of each day used to be sung in canto figurato in the papal chapel: but by order of Sixtus V, only the first lamentation of each day is thus sung, and even it is much shortened, as Clement XII directed: the two others are sung in canto piano according to Guidetti's method. The first lamentation both of the first and second day is by the celebrated Pierluigi da Palestrina: that of the third day by Allegri. Baini observes, that the first lamentation of the second day is considered the finest: Palestrina composed it for four voices, besides a bass, which entering at the pathetic apostrophe 'Jerusalem, Jerusalem, be converted to the Lord' "every year makes all the hearers and singers, who have a soul, change colour". Bayni, Mem. Stor. T. 1. The lamentations of Jeremiah have the form of an acrostic, that is, the verses begin with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet in regular order, the first with Aleph, the second with Beth, and so in succession. It was difficult to observe a similar order in the Latin Vulgate: but to preserve some vestige of it, the name of the Hebrew letter, with which each verse begins in the original, is sung before the same verse in the translation.
Conclusion of the office.
When the Benedictus or canticle of Zachary and its anthem are finished, the choir sings the verse "Christ was made for us obedient even unto death": on the second night they add "even unto the death of the cross": and on the third, "for which reason God hath exalted him, and hath given him a name, which is above all names". The heart of the christian is melted to devotion by these words, sung on so solemn an occasion: he kneels before his crucified Redeemer, and recites that prayer of love, that prayer of a child to his Father which He that man of sorrows dictated to His beloved disciples; and then remembering those sins, by which he offended that dear and agonising parent, and touched with sorrow and repentance, yet more and more excited by the music, I might almost call it celestial, his heart calls loudly for that mercy to obtain which Jesus died. He joins with God's minister in fervently repeating the prayer imploring God's blessing on those for whom Christ suffered and died: the noise which follows it recals to his mind the confusion of nature at the death of her creator; the lighted candle once more appearing reminds him that His death was only temporary: and he departs in silence impressed with pious sentiments, and inflamed with devout affections.
Miserere, its music.
They who have assisted at the office of Tenebræ will not be surprised at the saying of a philosopher, that for the advantage of his soul he would wish, that when he was about to render it up to God, he might hear sung the Miserere of the Pope's chapel. In no other place has this celebrated music succeeded. Baini the director of the Pontifical choir, in a note to his life of Palestrina, observes that Paride de Grassi, Master of ceremonies to Leo X, mentions that on holy wednesday (A.D. 1519), the singers chanted the Miserere in a new and unaccustomed manner, alternately singing the verses in symphony. This seems to be the origin of the far-famed Miserere. Various authors, whom Baini enumerates, afterwards composed Miserere52; but the celebrated composition of Gregorio Allegri a Roman, who entered the Papal college of singers in 1629, was the most successful, and was for some time sung on all the three days of Tenebræ. Then one composed by Alessandro Scarlatti, or that of Felice Anerio, used to be sung on holy thursday: but these were eclipsed by the Miserere, composed in 1214 by Tommase Bai a Bolognese, director of the choir of S. Peter's. From that time only Allegri's and Bai's were sung in the Pope's chapel; till Pius VII directed the celebrated Baini to compose a new Miserere, which has received well-merited applause. Since the year 1821 all three, viz. Baini's, Bai's, and Allegri's Misereres are sung on the three successive days, and generally in the order in which we have mentioned them: the two latter are sometimes blended together. The first verse is sung in harmony, the second in plain chant, and so successively till the last verse, which alone is sung in harmony by both the choirs, into which the singers are divided; only one choir sings the other verses53.