Among highly civilized peoples, where better economic methods bring greater density of population and set at the same time a higher standard of living, emigration from islands is especially marked. Japan has seen a formidable exodus since an end was put to its long period of compression. This has taken the form of widespread emigration to various foreign lands, notably the Hawaiian Islands and the United States, and also of internal colonization in its recently acquired territory in Formosa and Korea.991 The Maltese have spread from their congested island, and are found to-day as gardeners, sailors and traders along all the Mediterranean coasts.992 Majorca and the more barren Cyclades993 tell the same story. The men of Capri go in considerable numbers to South America, but generally return home again. The Icelanders often pull themselves out of the stagnation of their lonely, ungenerous island to become thrifty citizens of western Canada.

Emigration from islands readily throws itself into the channel of navigation and foreign trade. The northern Sporades, especially Skiathos and Skopelos, are the home of sailors who can be found over all the world.994 In this appetency for a nautical career, small inshore islets are often distinguished from the nearby mainland. Nearly all the masculine population of the Frisian Islands were seamen prior to 1807. In the eighteenth century a third of the Hamburg vessels were commanded by captains from the little island of Sylte, and a third of the Greenland fleet of the Netherlands by natives of Föhr.995

In England the exodus took the form of trading expeditions and the foundation of commercial colonies long before the food resources of the island had been even considerably developed. The accessible sea offered lines of least resistance, while the monopoly of the land by a privileged aristocracy and the fiercely defended corn laws made the limitations of a small area more oppressive. In Ireland, a landless peasantry in a grainless land, dulled by deprivation of opportunity, found in emigration an escape from insupportable evils.

While emigration draws off the surplus population, there tend to develop in islands, as also in barren highlands where population early reaches the point of saturation, various devices to restrict natural increase. The evils of congestion are foreseen and guarded against. Abbé Raynal, writing of islanders in general, remarked as far back as 1795, "It is among these people that we trace the origin of that multitude of singular institutions which retards the progress of population. Anthropophagy, the castration of males, the infibulation of females, late marriages, the consecration of virginity, the approbation of celibacy, the punishments exercised against girls who become mothers at too early an age," he enumerates as such checks. Malthus, in his Essay on Population, commenting on this statement, notes that the bounds to the number of inhabitants on islands, especially small ones, are so narrow and so obvious that no one can ignore them.996

The checks to population practiced on islands are either preventive or positive. The extreme measure to restrict marriage is found among the wretched Budumas who inhabit the small, marshy islands of Lake Chad. Tribal custom allows only the chiefs and headmen to have wives. A brass crescent inserted in the ear of a boy indicates the favored one among a chief's sons destined to carry on his race. For his brothers this is made physically impossible; they become big, dull, timid creatures contributing by their fishing to the support of the thinly populated villages. The natives of the Shari River delta on the southern shore of Lake Chad use Buduma as a term of contempt for a man.997

In islands, as in unproductive highlands where hunger stalks abroad, marriage readily takes the form of polyandry. On the Canary Islands, at the time of their conquest in 1402, polyandry existed in Lancerote and possibly in Fuerteventura, often assigning one woman to three husbands; but in the other islands of the group monogamy was strictly maintained.998 In Oceanica polygamy, monogamy or polyandry prevails according to a man's means, the poverty of the islands, and the supply of women. A plurality of wives is always the privilege of the chiefs and the wealthy, but all three forms of marriage may be found on the same island. Scarcity of women gives rise to polyandry in Tahiti,999 and consigns one woman to four or five men. In old Hawaii, where there were four or five men to one woman a kind of incipient polyandry arose by the addition of a countenanced paramour to the married couple's establishment.1000 Robert Louis Stevenson found the same complaisant arrangement a common one in the Marquesas, where the husband's deputy was designated by the term of pikio in the native vocabulary.1001 Polyandry existed in Easter Isle, among whose stunted and destitute population the men far exceeded the women, and children were few, according to reports of the early visitors.1002 Numerous other instances make this connection between island habitat, deficiency of women, need of checking increase, and polyandrous marriages an obvious one.1003

This disproportion of the sexes in Oceanica is due to the murder of female infants, too early child-bearing, overwork, privation, licentiousness, and the violence of the men.1004 The imminence of famine dictates certain positive checks to population, among which infanticide and abortion are widespread in Oceanica. In some parts of the New Hebrides and the Solomon groups it is so habitual, that in some families all children are killed, and substitutes purchased at will.1005 In the well-tilled Fiji Islands, a pregnant girl is strangled and her seducer slain. The women make a practice of drinking medicated waters to produce sterility. Failing in this, the majority kill their children either before or after birth. In the island of Vanua Levu infanticide reaches from one-half to two-thirds of all children conceived; here it is reduced to a system and gives employment to professional murderers of babies, who hover like vultures over every child-bed. All destroyed after birth are females.1006 And yet here, as on many other islands of Melanesia and Polynesia, such offspring as are spared are treated with foolish fondness and indulgence.1007 The two facts are not incompatible.

Geographic conditions made infanticide a state measure in these crowded communities. On the small coral atolls, where the food supply was scantest, it was enforced by law. On Vaitupu, in the Ellice group, only two children were allowed to a couple; on Nukufelau, only one. Any violation of this unique sumptuary law was punished by a fine.1008 On the congested Gilbert atolls, a woman rarely had more than two children, never more than three. Abortion, produced by a regular midwife, disposed of any subsequent offspring. Affection for children was very strong here, and infanticide of the living was unknown.1009 In Samoa, also, Turner found the practice restricted to the period before birth; but in Tahiti and elsewhere it was enforced by the tribal village authorities on the born and unborn.1010 In pre-Christian Hawaii, two-thirds of all children, and especially girls, were killed by their parents either before or after birth. The result was a decay of the maternal instinct and the custom of farming out children to strangers. This contributed to the excess of infant mortality, the degeneration of morals and the instability of the family.1011 So in Japan the pressure of population led to infanticide and the sale of daughters to a life of ignominy, which took them out of the child-bearing class.1012 Nor was either custom under the ban.

The result is a deterioration of morals, an invasion of the family bond, and a decay of the finer sentiments therewith connected. Captain Cook in 1770 found in Tahiti Eareeoie or Arreoys societies, which were free-love associations including in their number "over half of the better sort of the inhabitants." The children begotten of these promiscuous unions were smothered at birth. Obscene conversations, indecent dances and frank unchastity on the part of girls and women were the attendant evils of these loose morals.1013 Cook was sure that "these societies greatly prevent the increase of the superior classes of people of which they are composed." Malthus reports a similar association in the Marianne Islands, distinguished by a similar name, devoted to race suicide.1014 Everywhere in Oceanica marriage is unstable, and with few exceptions unchastity prevails. Stevenson thinks it chiefly accountable for the decline of population in the islands.1015 However, in the detailed taboos laid upon women in Fiji, Marquesas, and other Polynesian islands we have the survival of an early measure to increase reserve between the sexes, long after regard for chastity has vanished.1016

The constant pressure of population upon the limits of subsistence throughout Oceanica has occasioned a low valuation of human life. Among natural peoples the helpless suffer first. The native Hawaiians, though a good-natured folk, were relentless towards the aged, weak, sick, and insane. These were frequently stoned to death or allowed to perish of hunger.1017 In Fiji, the aged are treated with such contempt, that when decrepitude or illness threatens them, they beg their children to strangle them, unless the children anticipate the request.1018 In Vate (or Efate) of the New Hebrides, old people are buried alive, and their passage to another world duly celebrated by a feast.1019 However, in the Tonga Islands and in New Zealand, great respect and consideration are shown the aged as embodying experience.1020 The harsher custom recalls an ancient law of Aegean Ceos, which, ordained that all persons over sixty years of age should be compelled to drink hemlock, in order that there might be sufficient food for the rest.1021

Many customs of Oceanica can be understood only in the light of the small value attached to human life in this island world. The overpopulation which lies back of their colonization explains the human sacrifices in their religious orgies and funeral rites, as also the widespread practice of cannibalism. This can be traced in vestigial forms, or as an occasional or habitual custom from one end of the Pacific to the other, from the Marquesas to New Guinea and from New Zealand to Hawaii. All Melanesia is tainted with it, and Micronesia is not above suspicion. The cause of this extensive practice, Stevenson attributes to the imminence of famine and the craving for flesh as food in these small islands, which are destitute of animals except fowls, dogs and hogs. In times of scarcity cannibalism threatens all; it strikes from within or without the clan.1022 Ratzel leans to the same opinion.1023 Captain Cook thought the motive of a good full meal of human flesh was often back of the constant warfare in New Zealand, and was sometimes the only alternative of death by hunger. Cannibalism was not habitual in the Tonga Islands, but became conspicuous during periods of famine.1024 In far-away Tierra del Fuego, where a peculiarly harsh climate and the low cultural status of the natives combine to produce a frightful infant mortality and therefore to repress population, cannibalism within the clan is indulged in only at the imperious dictate of mid-winter hunger. The same thing is true in the nearby Chonos Archipelago.1025

These are the darker effects of an island habitat, the vices of its virtues. That same excessive pressure of population which gives rise to infanticide also stimulates agriculture, industry and trade; it develops ingenuity in making the most of local resources, and finally leads to that widespread emigration and colonization which has made islanders the great distributors of culture, from Easter Isle to Java and from ancient Crete to modern England.

NOTES TO CHAPTER XIII

803.

Table of areas of peninsulas and islands, Justus Perthes, Taschen Atlas, p. 9. Gotha, 1905.

804.

H.J. Mackinder, Britain and the British Seas, pp. 105-108. London, 1904.

805.

W. Deecke, Italy, p. 45. London, 1904.

806.

Journey of William de Rubruquis, pp. 187, 204, Hakluyt Society Publication, London, 1903.

807.

Archibald Little, The Far East, pp. 35, 45. Oxford, 1905.

808.

Strabo, Book X, chap. II, 19.

809.

Ratzel, Die Erde und das Leben, Vol. I. pp. 312-313. Leipzig, 1901.

810.

Charles H. Hawes, In the Uttermost East, p. 103. New York, 1904.

811.

W.E. Griffis, The Mikado's Empire, Vol. I, pp. 26-27. New York, 1904.

812.

Darwin, Origin of Species, Vol. II, chap. XIII, p, 178. New York, 1895.

813.

A.R. Wallace, Geographical Distribution of Animals, Vol. II, p. 61. London, 1876.

814.

Darwin, Origin of Species, Vol. II, chap. XIII, p. 183. New York, 1895.

815.

Ibid., Vol. II, chap. XIII, pp. 178-180.

816.

A.R. Wallace, Island Life, pp. 331-332, 338-389, 393, 402, 409-410, 449, 456-463. New York, 1893.

817.

Ibid., 342, 370-371.

818.

Emerson, English Traits, chap. VI.

819.

Capt. F. Brinkley, Japan, Vol. I, p. 50. Boston and Tokyo, 1901.

820.

W.E. Griffis, The Mikado's Empire, Vol. I, p. 198. New York, 1904.

821.

Arthur M. Knapp, Feudal and Modern Japan, Vol. I, pp. 211, 220, 221. New York, 1900.

822.

Emerson, English Traits, chap. III.

823.

Ronald M. Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete, pp. 134-136, 141, 162, 177. New York, 1907.

824.

Ibid., chapters IV and V.

825.

Ibid., p. 179. Angelo Mosso, The Palaces of Crete, pp. 46, 54-55, 61-62, 81. London, 1907.

826.

Ronald M. Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete, pp. 64-65, 82, 84, 147-150. New York, 1907. James Baikie, The Sea Kings of Crete, pp. 235-237. London, 1910.

827.

J.B. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 8-10. New York,1909.

828.

R.M. Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete, pp. 36, 44-46, 50-51, 85, 149-150, 179. New York, 1907.

829.

Ibid., 136-137.

830.

Private communication from Mrs. Harriet Boyd Hawes.

831.

Recent Discoveries in Crete, The Chautauquan, Vol. 43, p. 220. 1906. R.M. Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete, pp. 103, 162. New York, 1907.

832.

Grote, History of Greece, Vol. IV, pp. 244-245. New York, 1857.

833.

Strabo, Book XIV, chap. II, 7-13.

834.

Strabo, Book VII, chap. VI, 16.

835.

A.P. Niblack, Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British Columbia, pp. 382-384. House Misc. Doc. 142. Washington. Dr. George Dawson, The Haidas, Harper's Monthly, August, 1882.

836.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 180. London, 1896-1898.

837.

Article, The National Academy of Sciences, Nation, Vol. LXXX, p. 328. 1905. Capt. James Cook, A Voyage Towards the South Pole, 1772-1775, Vol. I, p. 284, 288-296. London. 1777. George Forster, Voyage Round the World, Vol. I, pp. 566-567, 580-581, 586-591. London, 1777.

838.

G. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race, chap. VII. London and New York, 1901. Helmolt, History of the World, Vol. IV, pp. 222-223. New York, 1902-1906.

839.

Charles W. Hawes, The Uttermost East, pp. 113-116. New York, 1904.

840.

William Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 224-234. Oxford. 1897. P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ireland, Vol. I, pp. 320, 389, 390. London, 1903.

841.

W.H. Dall, Masks and Labrets, p. 137. Third Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1884.

842.

A.P. Niblack, Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British Columbia, pp. 236-382. Washington.

843.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 187. New York, 1902.

844.

A.B. Ellis, The West African Islands, p. 202. London, 1885. History of the Conquest of the Canaries, Introduction, pp. XIII, XVII, XXXIII, XXXIV. Hakluyt Society, London, 1872.

845.

Henry Gannett, People of the Philippines, Report of the Eighth International Geographical Congress, Washington, 1904.

846.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 549. New York, 1903.

847.

W. Deecke, Italy, p. 451. London, 1904.

848.

Nelson Annandale, The Faroes and Iceland, p. 14. Oxford, 1905.

849.

J. Partsch, Central Europe, Map, p. 131, and p. 133. London, 1903.

850.

W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 272, 304, 305, 317. New York, 1899.

851.

Ibid., p. 303.

852.

Ibid., Map, p. 251, and p. 253.

853.

W. Deecke, Italy, p. 451. London, 1904.

854.

Darwin, Origin of Species, Vol. II, chap. XIII, pp. 179, 180, 184. New York, 1895. A. E. Wallace, Island Life, pp. 284-285, 290-291. London and New York, 1892.

855.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 554. New York, 1902.

856.

Ratzel, Die Erde und das Leben, Vol. I, p. 364. Leipsig, 1901.

857.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 454-456. London, 1896-1898. H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 1018. New York, 1902.

858.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 456. London, 1896-1898.

859.

Nordenskiold, Voyage of the Vega, pp. 563, 588, 591. New York, 1882.

860.

A.R. Wallace, Malay Archipelago, pp. 368, 380, 381. New York, 1869.

861.

Richard Semon, In the Australian Bush, pp. 277-278. London,1899.

862.

Strabo, Book VIII, chap. VI, 16.

863.

Pliny, Naturalis Historia, Book IV, 12.

864.

Ibid., Book VI, chap, 32.

865.

Hereford George, Historical Geography of the British Empire, pp. 130-133. London, 1904.

866.

Dietrich Schaefer, Die Hansestädte und König Waldemar von Dänemark, pp. 37-44. Jena, 1879.

867.

Hereford George, Historical Geography of the British Empire, pp. 127-128. London, 1904.

868.

The Danish West Indies, pp. 2767, 2769. Summary of Commerce and Finance for January, 1902. Washington.

869.

E.A. Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, pp. 22, 29, 37, 65, 77, 384, 412-415, 419, 426, 465. London, 1882.

870.

Ibid., 35, 48, 49, 54-55, 80, 379, 382-385, 409, 411, 556, 557. E.A. Freeman, Sicily, chaps. I, II. New York and London, 1894.

871.

W. Deecke, Italy, pp. 132, 445. London, 1904. W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, p. 271. New York, 1899.

872.

Elisée Reclus, Europe, Vol. I, p. 320. New York, 1886.

873.

W. Deecke, Italy, pp. 448, 453. London, 1904.

874.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 367. New York, 1902.

875.

David Murray, Story of Japan, p. 156. New York, 1894.

876.

Henry Dyer. Dai Nippon, p. 61. New York, 1904.

877.

E.A. Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, pp. 55, 245, 252, 257, 258, 264, 556. London, 1882.

878.

Thucydides I, 114; IV, 57-59, 62.

879.

Ibid., IV, 120-122.

880.

Aristotle, Politics, Book XI, chaps. 7, 8.

881.

J.T. Bent, The Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf, Proceedings of the Roy. Geog. Soc., Vol. XII, p. 1. London, 1890.

882.

W.F. Walker, The Azores, p. 22. London, 1886.

883.

A.B. Ellis, West African Islands, p. 203. London, 1885.

884.

Strabo, Book III, chap. V, 1.

885.

H.J. Mackinder, Britain and the British Seas, pp. 10-12. London, 1904.

886.

W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 301, 311. New York, 1899.

887.

H.B. George, Historical Geography of the British Empire, pp. 100, 103, 104. London, 1904.

888.

J.R. Green, The Making of England, Vol. II, pp. 30, 31, 35. London, 1904.

889.

James Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, p. 185. London, 1890. George Webbe Dasent, The Story of Burnt Njal, or Life in Iceland at the End of the Tenth Century, Vol. I, pp. LII-LXVIII. Edinburgh, 1861.

890.

Dahlmann, Geschichte van Dänemark, Vol. II, pp. 265-268. Hamburg, 1857. James Bryce, Introduction to Helmolt, History of the World, Vol. I, p. XXII. New York, 1902.

891.

George T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church, pp. 206-230. London, 1886.

892.

J.R. Green, History of the English People, Vol. I, pp. 48-49.

893.

Recent Discoveries in Crete, The Chautauquan, Vol. XLIII, p. 220. 1906. Angelo Mosso, The Palaces of Crete, p. 325. London, 1907.

894.

Helmolt, History of the World, Vol. II, pp. 496-504 New York 1902-6.

895.

David Murray, Story of Japan, p. 156. New York, 1894. W.E. Griffis, The Mikado's Empire, Vol. I, pp. 176-181. New York, 1903.

896.

J.R. Green, History of the English People, Vol. I, pp. 30-33. New York.

897.

Capt. F. Brinkley, Japan, Vol. I, p. 8. Boston and Tokyo, 1901.

898.

Capt. A.T. Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History, p. 29. New York, 1902.

899.

H.J. Mackinder, Britain and the British Seas, pp. 341, 343. London, 1904.

900.

Ratzel, Die Erde und das Leben, Vol. I, p. 362. Leipzig, 1901.

901.

W.E. Griffis, The Mikado's Empire, Vol. I, p. 258. New York, 1903.

902.

W.F. Walker, The Azores, p. 2. London, 1886.

903.

F.W. Wines, Punishment and Reformation, pp. 166-167, 184-188. New York, 1895.

904.

Tacitus, Annals, Book I, chap. XIII.

905.

Ibid., Book IV, chaps. III, XV. Book II, chap. XIX.

906.

W. Deecke, Italy, pp. 270, 410, 413, 448, 450. London, 1904.

907.

Longmans Gazetteer of the World, Article Easter Isle.

908.

Darwin and Fitzroy, Voyage of the Beagle, Vol. II, p. 59. London, 1839.

909.

Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 490-492.

910.

A.B. Ellis, West African Islands, pp. 1-3. London, 1885.

911.

Longmans Gazetteer of the World, Andaman and Nicobar.

912.

Darwin and Fitzroy, Voyage of the Beagle, Vol. III, p. 245. London, 1839.

913.

A.B. Ellis, West African Islands, pp. 72, 73, 241. London, 1885.

914.

Charles H. Hawes, The Uttermost East, p. 345. New York, 1904.

915.

The Dry Tortugas, Harper's Monthly, Vol. 37, p. 260. 1868.

916.

A.R. Wallace, Island Life, pp. 332, 371, 410, 457, 460-461, 464. London, 1892.

917.

Ibid., pp. 407, 408, 410, 462.

918.

Census of the Philippine Islands of 1903, Vol. I, p. 456. Washington, 1905.

919.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, pp. 446, 449, 451. London, 1896-1898.

920.

W.E. Griffis, The Mikado's Empire, Vol. I, pp. 30-31. New York, 1903.

921.

W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, p. 271. New York, 1899.

922.

Hereford George, Historical Geography of the British Empire, pp. 106-107. London, 1904.

923.

Nelson Annandale, The Faroes and Iceland, pp. 19, 20, 33, 37, 64-65, 148, 193-194, 198, 206, 208. Oxford, 1905.

924.

Capt. James Cook, Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, 1776-1780, Vol. II, pp. 69-70, 75-78. New York, 1796.

925.

Williams and Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, pp. 5-7, 14, 15. New York, 1859. Basil Thomson, The Fijians, pp. 23-32. London, 1908.

926.

Mahler, Siedelungsgebiete und Siedelungslage in Ozeanien. Melching Staatenbildung in Melanesien, Leipzig, Dissertations, 1897.

927.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 570. New York, 1902.

928.

Aristotle, Politics, Book II, chap. 8.

929.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, 297-299. London, 1896-1898.

930.

Ibid., Vol. I, Map, p. 145, pp. 234, 251.

931.

Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 204-214.

932.

Justus Perthes, Taschen Atlas, p. 67. Gotha, 1910.

933.

Ibid., p. 60.

934.

Ibid., p. 37.

935.

Ibid., p. 51.

936.

Ibid., pp. 37, 67.

937.

Lippincott's New Gazetteer of the World, Madeira and Azores.

938.

R.L. Stevenson, The South Seas, p. 37. New York, 1903.

939.

Ibid., p. 222.

940.

J.S. Jenkins, United States Exploring Squadron under Capt. Wilkes, 1838-1842, pp. 401-403. New York, 1855.

941.

Justus Perthes, Taschen Atlas, p. 70. Gotha, 1905.

942.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 158, 179. London, 1896-1898.

943.

J.S. Jenkins, United States Exploring Squadron under Capt. Wilkes, 1838-1842, p. 462. New York, 1855.

944.

Ibid., p. 314.

945.

Nelson Annandale, The Faroes and Iceland, pp. 93-129. Oxford, 1905.

946.

Elisée Reclus, Europe, Vol. IV, p. 344. New York, 1886.

947.

John Murray, Handbook to Greece and the Ionian Isles, p. 329. London, 1872.

948.

Hereford George, Historical Geography of the British Empire, p. 119. London, 1904.

949.

W. Deecke, Italy, pp. 449-450. London, 1904.

950.

Ibid., pp. 447-448, 410-411.

951.

Statistics from Justus Perthes, Taschen Atlas, p. 65. Gotha, 1910.

952.

Longmans Gazetteer of the World, Amboina.

953.

Census of the Philippine Islands of 1903. Vol. II, p. 30. Washington, 1905.

954.

Justus Perthes, Taschen Atlas, pp. 75, 77. Gotha, 1910.

955.

Hereford George, Historical Geography of the British Empire, pp. 238-240. London, 1904.

956.

D.G. Hogarth, The Nearer East, pp. 243-244. London, 1902.

957.

Dr. A. Philippson, The Greek Islands of the Aegean, Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. XIII, p. 489. 1897.

958.

J.T. Brent, The Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf, Proceedings of the Roy. Geog. Society, Vol. XII, pp. 1-19, 1890; and Justus Perthes, Taschen Atlas, p. 55. Gotha, 1910.

959.

Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World, pp. 26-32. Boston, 1900.

960.

Ibid., pp. 253-262.

961.

Thucydides, I, 100, 101. Herodotus, VII, 108, 109.

962.

Grote, History of Greece, Vol. III, pp. 195, 197. New York, 1857.

963.

Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 30-33.

964.

Capt. James Cook, Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, 1776-1780, Vol. II, pp. 85-86, 88. New York. 1796.

965.

George Forster, Voyage Round the World, Vol. I, p. 274, 280, 281, 285. London, 1777.

966.

J.S. Jenkins, United States Exploring Squadron under Capt. Wilkes, 1838-1842, p. 402. New York, 1855.

967.

George Forster, Voyage Round the World, Vol. I, pp. 571, 578, 587, 595. London, 1777.

968.

R.H. Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 303-304. Oxford, 1891.

969.

William Mariner, Natives of the Tonga Islands, Vol. II, p. 30. Edinburgh, 1827.

970.

Capt. James Cook, Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, 1776-1780, Vol. I, p. 302. New York, 1796.

971.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 254-256. London, 1896-1898.

972.

Williams and Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, pp. 8, 46-49. New York, 1859. Basil Thomson, The Fijians, p. 339. London, 1908.

973.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, pp. 562, 564, 572. New York, 1902.

974.

Census of the Philippine Islands of 1903, Vol. IV, pp. 1-2. Washington, 1905.

975.

Strabo, Book VIII, chap. VI, 16.

976.

W. Deecke, Italy, pp. 380, 448-450. London, 1904.

977.

Ibid., p. 452.

978.

Dr. A. Philippson, The Greek Islands of the Aegean, Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. XIII, pp. 489-490. 1897. John Murray, Handbook to Greece and the Ionian Isles. London, 1872.

979.

W.E. Griffis, The Mikado's Empire, Vol. I, pp. 17-20. New York, 1904.

980.

Henry Dyer, Dai Nippon, pp. 238-244. New York, 1903. Arthur M. Knapp, Feudal and Modern Japan, Vol. I, pp. 78, 79, 116, 117. New York, 1900.

981.

Alfred Stead, Japan by the Japanese, p. 413. London, 1904.

982.

Sir Rutherford Alcock, Three Years in Japan, Vol. I, pp. 83, 84, 283-286. New York, 1868.

983.

H.D. Traill, Social England, Vol. II, pp. 243-246, 547-554; Vol. III, pp. 114-121, 239-241, 253-255, 351-359. London, 1905.

984.

Thucydides, Book I, 4. Aristotle, Politics, Book II, chap. 7, 2. Herodotus, Book VII, 170.

985.

Thucydides, Book IV, chaps. 84, 88.

986.

Census of the Philippine Islands in 1903, Vol. I, pp. 412-414. Washington, 1905.

987.

Richard Semon, In the Australian Bush, p. 517. London, 1899.

988.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 174-177. London, 1896-98.

989.

Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 178-179.

990.

Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 157-161, 165.

991.

Henry Dyer, Dai Nippon, pp. 250-257, 266. New York, 1904.

992.

Elisée Reclus, Europe, Vol. I, p. 337. New York, 1886. Hereford George, Historical Geography of the British Empire, pp. 118-119. London, 1904.

993.

D.G. Hogarth, The Nearer East, p. 244. London, 1902.

994.

Dr. A. Philippson, The Greek Islands of the Aegean, Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. XIII, p. 488. 1897.

995.

Jensen, Die Nordfrieschen Inseln, p. 133. 1891.

996.

Malthus, Essay on Population, Book I, chap. V, p. 67. London, 1826. This whole chapter on "Checks to Population in the Islands of the South Seas" is valuable.

997.

Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, Vol. II, pp. 108-110. London, 1907.

998.

History of the Conquest of the Canaries, p. xxxix. Hakluyt Society, London, 1872.

999.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 273, 299-300. London, 1896-98.

1000.

Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 270, 274-275. Adolf Marcuse, Die Hawaiischen Inseln, p. 108. Berlin, 1894.

1001.

R.L. Stevenson, The South Seas, pp. 138-139. New York, 1903.

1002.

George Forster, Voyage Round the World, Vol. I, p. 564, 569, 572, 577, 584, 586, 596. London, 1777.

1003.

Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, pp. 116, 441, 462-463, 450-452, 454, 457. London, 1891.

1004.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 270. London, 1896-1898.

1005.

R.H. Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 229. Oxford, 1891.

1006.

Basil Thomson, The Fijians, pp. 221-227. London, 1908. Williams and Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, pp. 132, 142. New York, 1859.

1007.

Ibid., p. 130. R.L. Stevenson, The South Seas, pp. 38, 40. New York, 1903.

1008.

Ibid., p. 38.

1009.

J.S. Jenkins, United States Exploring Squadron under Capt. Wilkes, 1838-1842, pp. 404-405. New York, 1855.

1010.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 270, 299. London, 1896-98.

1011.

Adolf Marcuse, Die Hawaiischen Inseln, p. 109. Berlin, 1894.

1012.

G.W. Knox, Japanese Life in Town and Country, p. 188. New York, 1905.

1013.

Capt. Cook's Journal, First Voyage Round the World in the Endeavor, 1768-1771, pp. 95, 96. Edited by W.J.L. Wharton. London, 1893.

1014.

Malthus, Essay on Population, Book I, chap. V.

1015.

R.L. Stevenson, The South Seas, p. 39. New York, 1903.

1016.

Ibid., p. 52.

1017.

Adolf Marcuse, Die Hawaiischen Inseln, p. 109. Berlin, 1894.

1018.

Williams and Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, pp. 144-146. New York, 1859.

1019.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 330. London, 1896-1898.

1020.

William Mariner, Natives of the Tonga Islands, Vol. II, pp. 95, 134-135. Edinburgh, 1827. Capt. Cook's Journal, First Voyage Round the World in the Endeavor, 1768-1771, pp. 220-221. Edited by W.J.L. Wharton. London, 1893.

1021.

Strabo, Book X, chap. V, 6.

1022.

R.L. Stevenson, The South Seas, pp. 98-104. New York, 1903.

1023.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 297-299. London, 1896-1898.

1024.

William Mariner, Natives of the Tonga Islands, Vol. II, pp. 108-109. Edinburgh, 1827.

1025.

Darwin and Fitzroy, Voyage of the Beagle, Vol. II, pp. 183, 189-190. London, 1839.