The abundant leisure of nomadic life encourages the beginning of industry, but rarely advances it beyond the household stage, owing to the thin, family-wise dispersion of population which precludes division of labor. Such industry as exists consists chiefly in working up the raw materials yielded by the herds. Among the Bedouins, blacksmiths and saddlers are the only professional artisans; these are regarded with contempt and are never of Bedouin stock.1157 In the ancient world, industry reached its zero point in Arabia, and in modern times shows meager development there. On the other hand the Saharan Arabs developed an hereditary guild of expert well-makers, which seems to date back to remote times, and is held in universal honor.1158

It is to the tent-dwellers of the world, however, that we apparently owe the oriental rug. This triumph of the weaver's art seems to have originated among pastoral nomads, who developed it in working up the wool and hair of their sheep, goats and camels; but it early became localized as a specialized industry in the towns and villages of irrigated districts on the borders of the grazing lands, where the nomads had advanced to sedentary life. Therefore in the period of the Caliphate, from 632 to 1258, we find these brilliant flowers of the loom, blooming like the Persian gardens, in Persian Farsistan, Khusistan, Kirman and Khorasan. We find them spreading the mediæval fame of Shiraz, Tun, Meshed, Amul, Bukhara and Merv. The secret of this preeminence lay partly in the weaver's inherited aptitude and artistic sense for this textile work, derived from countless generations of shepherd ancestors; partly in their proximity to the finest raw materials, whose quality was equalled nowhere else, because it depended upon the character of the pasturage, probably also upon the climatic conditions affecting directly the flocks and herds.1159

A map showing the geographical distribution of Eastern rug-making reveals the relation of the industry to semi-arid or saline pastures, and makes the mind revert at once to the blankets of artistic design and color, woven by the Navajo Indians of our own rainless Southwest. Rug weaving in the Old World reached its finest development in countries like Persia, Turkestan, western Afghanistan, Baluchistan, western India and the plateau portions of Asia Minor, countries where the rainfall varies from 10 to 20 inches or even less, [See map page 484.] where nomadism claims a considerable part of the population, and where the ancestry of all traces back to some of the great shepherd races, like Turkomans and Tartars. These peoples are hereditary specialists in the care, classification, and preparation of wools.1160 Weavers of rugs form an industrial class in the cities of Persia and Asia Minor, where they obey largely the taste of the outside world in regard to design and color;1161 whereas the nomads, weaving for their own use, adhere strictly to native colors and designs. Their patterns are tribal property, each differing from that of the other; and though less artistic than those of the urban workers, are nevertheless interesting and consistent, while the nomad's intuitive sense of color is fine.1162

The principles of design and color which these tent-dwellers had developed in their weaving, they applied, after their conquest of agricultural lands, to stone and produced the mosaic, to architecture and produced the Alhambra and the Taj Mahal.1163 Whether Saracens of Spain or Turkoman conquerors of India, they were ornamentists whose contribution to architecture was decoration. Working in marble, stone, metals or wood, they wrought always in the spirit of color and textile design, rather than in the spirit of form. The walls of their mosques, palaces and tombs reproduce the beauty of the rugs once screening the doors of their felt tents. The gift of color they passed on to the West, first through the Moors of Sicily and Spain, later through Venetian commerce. Their influence can be seen in the exquisite mosaic decoration in the cloister of Mont Reale of once Saracenic Palermo, and in the Ducal Palace and St. Mark's Cathedral of beauty-loving Venice.1164 This has been almost their sole contribution to the art of the world.

Pastoral nomads can give political union to civilized peoples; they can assimilate and spread ready-made elements of civilization, but to originate or develop them they are powerless. Between the art, philosophy and literature of China on the one side, and of the settled districts of Persia on the other, lies the cultural sterility of the Central Asia plateau. Its outpouring hordes have only in part acquired the civilization of the superior agricultural peoples whom they have conquered; from Kazan and Constantinople to Delhi, from Delhi to Peking they have added almost nothing to the local culture.

Deserts and steppes lay an arresting hand on progress. Their tribes do not develop; neither do they grow old. They are the eternal children of the world. Genuine nomadic peoples show no alteration in their manners, customs or mode of life from millennium to millennium. The interior of the Arabian desert reveals the same social and economic status,1165 whether we take the descriptions of Moses or Mohammed or Burckhardt or more recent travelers. The Bedouins of the Nubian steppes adhere strictly to all their ancient customs, and reproduce to-day the pastoral nomadism of Abraham and Jacob.1166 Genealogies were not more important to the biblical house of David and stem of Jesse than they are for the modern Kirghis tribesman, who as a little child learns to recite the list of his ancestors back to the seventh generation. The account which Herodotus gives of the nomads of the Russian steppes agrees in minute details with that of Strabo written five centuries later,1167 with that of William de Rubruquis in 1253, and with modern descriptions of Kalmuck and Kirghis life. The Gauchos or Indian pastoral halfbreeds of the Argentine plains were found by Wappäus in 1870 to accord accurately with Avara's description of them at the end of the eighteenth century.1168 The restless tenants of the grasslands come and go, but their type never materially changes. Their culture is stationary amid persistent movement. Only when here or there in some small and favored spot they are forced to make the transition to agriculture, or when they learn by long and close association with sedentary nations the lesson of drudgery and progress, do the laws of social and economic development begin to operate in them. As a rule, they must first escape partly or wholly the environment of their pasture lands, either by emigration or by the intrusion into their midst of alien tillers of the soil.

But while the migrant shepherd originates nothing, he plays an historical rôle as a transmitter of civilization. Asiatic nomads have sparsely disseminated the culture of China, Persia, Egypt and Yemen over large areas of the world. The Semite shepherds of the Red Sea deserts, through their merchants and conquerors, long gave to the dark Sudan the only light of civilization which it received, Mohammed, a Bedouin of the Ishmaelite tribe, caravan leader on the desert highways between Mecca and Syria, borrowed from Jerusalem the simple tenets of a monotheistic religion, and spread them through his militant followers over a large part of Africa and Asia.

The deserts and grasslands breed in their sons certain qualities and characteristics-courage, hardihood, the stiff-necked pride of the freeman, vigilance, wariness, sense of locality,1169 keen powers of observation stimulated by the monotonous, featureless environment, and the consequent capacity to grasp every detail.1170 Though robbery abroad is honorable and marauder a term with which to crown a hero, theft at home is summarily dealt with among most nomads. The property of the unlocked tent and the far-ranging herd must be safeguarded.1171 The Tartars maintained a high standard of honesty among themselves and punished theft with death.1172 Wide dispersal in small groups is reflected in the diversity of dialects among desert peoples;1173 in the practice of hospitality, whether among Bedouins of the Nejd, Kirghis of the Central Asia plateau,1174 or semi-nomadic Boers of South Africa;1175 in the persistence of feuds and of the duty of blood revenge, which is sanctioned by the Koran.

Isolation tends to breed among nomads pride of race and a repugnance to intermixture. The ideal of the pastoral Israelites was a pure ethnic stock, protected by stern inhibition of intermarriage with other tribes. Therefore, Moses enjoined upon them the duty of exterminating the peoples of Canaan whom they dispossessed.1176 While the urban Arabs show a medley of breeds, dashed with a strain of negro blood, among the nomad Bedouins, mixture is exceptional and is regarded as a disgrace.1177 The same thing is true among the nomad Arabs of Algeria, and there it has placed a stumbling block in the way of the French colonial administration, by preventing the appearance of half-breeds who might bridge the gap between the colonials and natives. Where pastoral Semites have settled in agricultural lands, intermixture on a wide scale has followed, as in the Sudan from Niger to Nile; but even here, when a tribe or clan has retained a strictly pastoral life in the grassland, and has held itself aloof from the agricultural districts of the Negro villages, relatively pure survivals are to be found, as among the Cow or Bush Fulani of Bornu.1178 On the other hand, the Hausa, a migrant trading folk of mingled Arab and Negro blood, spread northward along the trans-Saharan caravan route to the oasis of Air before the fourteenth century, and there have infused into the local Berber stock a strong Negro strain.1179 Among the nomads of Central Asia, one wave of race movement has so often followed and overtaken another, that it has produced a confused blending of breeds. The mixtures are so numerous that pure types are exceptional,1180 and the exclusiveness of the desert Semites disappears.

Though all these desert-born characteristics and customs have a certain interest for the sociologist, they possess only minor importance in comparison with the religious spirit of pastoral nomads, which is always fraught with far-reaching historical results. The evidence of history shows us that there is such a thing as a desert-born genius for religion. Huc and Gabin testify to the deeper religious feeling of the Buddhist nomads of the Central Asia plateaus, as compared with the lowland Chinese. The three great monotheistic religions of the world are closely connected in their origin and development with the deserts of Syria and Arabia. The area of Mohammedism embraces the steppe zone of the Old World1181 from Senegambia and Zanzibar in Africa to the Indus, Tarim and the upper Obi, together with some well watered lands on its margins. It comprises in this territory a variety of races—Negroes, Hamites, Semites, Iranians, Indo-Aryans, and a long list of Mongoloid tribes. Here is a psychological effect of environment. The dry, pure air stimulates the faculties of the desert-dweller, but the featureless, monotonous surroundings furnish them with little to work upon. The mind, finding scant material for sustained logical deduction, falls back upon contemplation. Intellectual activity is therefore restricted, narrow, unproductive; while the imagination is unfettered but also unfed. First and last, these shepherd folk receive from the immense monotony of their environment the impression of unity.1182 Therefore all of them, upon outgrowing their primitive fetish and nature worship, gravitate inevitably into monotheism. Their religion is in accord with their whole mental make-up; it is a growth, a natural efflorescence. Therefore it is strong. Its tenets form the warp of all their intellectual fabrics, permeate their meager science and philosophy, animate their more glorious poetry. It has moreover the fanaticism and intolerance characterizing men of few ideas and restricted outlook upon life. Therewith is bound up a spirit of propaganda. The victories of the Jews in Palestine, Syria and Philistia were the victories of Jehovah; the conquests of Saladin were the conquests of Allah; and the domain of the Caliphate was the dominion of Islam.

Distribution Of Religions In The Old World (World map showing distribution of Christians, Mohammedans, Brahmans, Buddhists, and Heathen).

The desert everywhere, sooner or later, drives out its brood, ejects its people and their ideas, like those exploding seed-pods which at a touch cast their seed abroad. The religious fanaticism of the shepherd tribes gives that touch; herein lies its historical importance. Mohammedism, fierce and militant, conduced to those upheavals of migration and conquest which since the seventh century have so often transformed the political geography of the Old World. The vast empire of the Caliphate, from its starting point in Arabia, spread in eighty years from the Oxus River to the Atlantic Ocean.1183 The rapid rise and spread between 1745 and 1803 of the Wahaby clan and sect, the Puritans of Islam, which resulted for a time in their political and religious domination of much of Arabia from their home in the Nejd, recalls the stormy conquests of Mohammed's followers. Islam is to-day a persistent source of ferment in Algeria, the Sahara, and the Sudan, On the other hand. Buddhism serves to cement together the diverse nomadic tribes of the Central Asia plateaus, and keep them in spiritual subjection to the Grand Lama of Lhassa. The Chinese government makes political use of this fact by dominating the Lama and employing him as a tool to secure quiet on its long frontier of contact with its restless Mongol neighbors. Moreover the religion of Buddha has restrained the warlike spirit of the nomads, and by its institution of celibacy has helped keep down population below the boiling-point. [Compare maps pages 484 and 513.]

The faith of the desert tends to be stern, simple and austere. The indulgence which Mohammed promised his followers in Paradise was only a reflex of the deprivation under which they habitually suffered in the scant pastures of Arabia. The lavish beauty of the Heavenly City epitomized the ideals and dreams of the desert-stamped Jew. The active, simple, uncramped life of the grasslands seems essential to the preservation of the best virtues of the desert-bred. These disappear largely in sedentary life. The Bedouin rots when he takes root. City life contaminates, degrades him. His virile qualities and his religion both lose their best when he leaves the desert. Contact with the cities of Philistia and the fertile plains of the Canaanites, with their sensual agricultural gods, demoralized the Israelites.1184 The prophets were always calling them back to the sterner code of morals and the purer faith of their days of wandering. Jeremiah in despair holds up to them as a standard of life the national injunction of the pastoral Rechabites, "Neither shall ye build house nor sow corn nor plant vineyard, but all your days ye shall dwell in tents."1185 The ascent in civilization made havoc with Hebrew morals and religion, because ethics and religion are the finest and latest flower of each cultural stage. Transition shows the breaking down of one code before the establishment of another.

Judaism has always suffered from its narrow local base. Even when transplanted to various parts of the earth, it has remained a distinctly tribal religion. Intense conservatism in doctrine and ceremonial it still bears as the heritage of its desert birth. Islam too shows the limitations of its original environment. It embodies a powerful appeal to the peoples of arid lands, and among these it has spread and survives as an active principle. But it belongs to an arrested economic and social development, lacks the germs of moral evolution which Christianity, born in the old stronghold of Hebraic monotheism, but impregnated by all the cosmopolitan influences of the Mediterranean basin and the Imperium Romanum, amply possesses.

NOTES TO CHAPTER XIV

1026.

Figures taken from Albrecht Penck, Morphologie der Erdoberfläche, Vol. I, p. 151. Stuttgart, 1894.

1027.

A.P. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History, Chap. IV. Boston, 1903.

1028.

E.C. Semple, American History and Its Geographic Conditions, pp. 65-69, 230, 288, 385. Boston, 1903.

1029.

Ibid., pp. 218, 221, 393.

1030.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 127. New York, 1902.

1031.

Henry Buckle, History of Civilization in England, Vol. II, pp. 126-136. New York, 1871.

1032.

Carl Ritter, Comparative Geography, pp. 191-192, 201. Philadelphia, 1865.

1033.

J.H. Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 142, 144, 261-265, 293-302, 513-517. New York, 1905.

1034.

Ibid., 6, 48, 93, 114, 119, 127, 134, 136, 163, 164, 182, 190, 191, 507.

1035.

W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 340-343, map. New York, 1899.

1036.

Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars, Vol. I, pp. 57-60. New York, 1893.

1037.

W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, Maps, pp. 53 and 66. New York, 1899.

1038.

Hans Helmolt, History of the World, Vol. VI, p. 130, map of ancient distribution of Germans and Celts. New York, 1907.

1039.

W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 216-218. New York, 1899.

1040.

Ibid., 344-347, 356, 365.

1041.

Elisée Reclus, Europe, Vol. IV, pp. 309-310. New York, 1882.

1042.

Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, Empire of the Tsars, Vol. I, p. 107. New York, 1893.

1043.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, pp. 220-222. New York, 1902.

1044.

Vidal-Lablache, Atlas Général, Maps pp. 63, 64, 93. Paris, 1909.

1045.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, 174, 177-182. New York, 1902.

1046.

Twelfth Census, Bulletin of Agriculture No. 181, p. 2, compared with Eleventh Census, Statistics of Population, map of negro distribution, p. XCVII. Washington, 1895.

1047.

Twelfth Census, Bulletin of Agriculture, No. 155, p. 2. Washington, 1902.

1048.

W.Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, p. 353. New York, 1899.

1049.

Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, Vol. II, p. 238. London, 1907.

1050.

Haxthausen, Studien, Vol. I, p. 309. Die ländliche Verfassung Russlands, pp. 3, 7. Leipzig, 1866.

1051.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. II, pp. 79-83. London, 1896-1898. J. Wappaüs, Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik des ehemaligen spanischen Mittel- und Sud-Amerika, pp. 978-980, 1019. Leipzig, 1863-1870.

1052.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. II, pp. 206-208. London, 1896-1898.

1053.

Nordenskiold, Voyage of the Vega, pp. 60, 156, 452. New York, 1882. Alexander P. Engelhardt, A Russian Province of the North, pp. 291-295. London, 1899.

1054.

Ibid., pp. 83, 88-91.

1055.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, pp. 166-167. London. 1896-1898.

1056.

James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 107. New York, 1897.

1057.

Herodotus, Melpomene, 19, 46.

1058.

Thomas Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, Vol. I, p. 262. Oxford, 1892.

1059.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. II, p. 220. London, 1896-1898.

1060.

Genesis, XIII, 2, 5.

1061.

James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 474. New York, 1897.

1062.

Eleventh Census, Indian Report, pp. 143-144. Washington, 1894.

1063.

Sven Hedin, Central Asia and Tibet, Vol. I, pp. 18-20. London and New York, 1903.

1064.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 32-33. London, 1831.

1065.

George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 8-10. New York, 1897.

1066.

Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. V, pp. 78-79. New York, 1858.

1067.

L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, p. 95. London, 1905.

1068.

Sir Samuel W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, pp. 88, 128, 129, 135. Hartford, 1868.

1069.

Journey of John de Carpini and William de Rubruquis in 1253, pp. 8, 217. Hakluyt Society, London, 1903.

1070.

James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, pp. 107, 421. New York, 1897.

1071.

Wilhelm Roscher, National-Oekonomik des Ackerbaues, p. 44. Stuttgart, 1888.

1072.

A full discussion in Malthus, Principles of Population, Book I, chap. 7.

1073.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 133-144, 157-160. London, 1831. S.M. Zwemer, Arabia, The Cradle of Islam, 155-157. New York, 1900.

1074.

Vambery, Reise in Mittelasien, pp. 285, 289-297. Leipzig, 1873.

1075.

Alexis Krausse, Russia in Asia, pp. 127-129. New York, 1899.

1076.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, pp. 174-175. London, 1896-1898.

1077.

Wallace, Russia, pp. 340-342. New York, 1904.

1078.

L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, pp. 17, 63-66. London, 1905.

1079.

Felix Dubois, Timbuctoo, pp. 256, 324-325. Translated from the French, New York, 1896.

1080.

Heinrich Barth, Travels in North and Central Africa, Vol. I, pp. 287-288, 293, 305. New York, 1857.

1081.

Felix Dubois, Timbuctoo, pp. 133-134, 203, 206-207, 229, 232, 239-245. New York, 1896.

1082.

Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, Vol. II, pp. 1-2, 6, 16-18, 80. London, 1907.

1083.

Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman. Empire, Vol. V, p. 87. New York, 1858.

1084.

Pliny, Historia Naturalis, V, 3.

1085.

Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, p. 495. New York, 1858.

1086.

Ellsworth Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, p. 340. Boston, 1907.

1087.

Pallas, Travels in the Southern Provinces of Russia in 1793-1794, Vol. II, p. 4. London, 1812.

1088.

Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 94, 256.

1089.

Genesis, XIII, 7-8; XXI, 25-30; XXVI, 15-22.

1090.

Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, Vol. I, p. 545. New York, 1887.

1091.

Thucydides, Book II, 96.

1092.

Herodotus, IV, 46.

1093.

Meredith Townsend, Asia and Europe, Chapter on Arab Courage. New York, 1904.

1094.

Wilhelm Roscher, National-Oekonomik des Ackerbaues, p. 44. Stuttgart, 1888.

1095.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 35-36. London, 1831.

1096.

John de Plano Carpini, Journey to the Northeast, pp. 114-117, 120-125. Hakluyt Society, London, 1904.

1097.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 28. London, 1896-1898.

1098.

J.H. Speke, Discovery of the Source of the Nile, pp. 241-244. New York, 1868.

1099.

Journey of William de Rubruquis, pp. 18-27, Hakluyt Society, London, 1900.

1100.

Jerome Dowd, The Negro Races, Vol. I, pp. 225-232. New York, 1907.

1101.

Sir Francis Younghusband, The Heart of a Continent, pp. 85-98. London, 1904.

1102.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 170. London, 1896-1898.

1103.

Heinrich Barth, Travels in North and Central Africa, Vol. I, pp. 148, 152, 204, 210, 303. New York, 1857.

1104.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 115-119, 284-286, 296-300. London, 1831.

1105.

Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. V, pp. 85-87. New York, 1857.

1106.

Jerome Dowd, The Negro Races, Vol. I, pp. 234-235. New York,1907.

1107.

Vambery, Reise in Mittel Asien, pp. 288-290. Leipzig, 1873.

1108.

James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, pp. 108, 128, 129, 155, 199, 452-453. New York, 1897.

1109.

For vivid description of desert defensive warfare, see Gustav Frensen, Peter Moore's Journey to Southwest Africa. Translated from the German, 1908. Based upon interviews with hundreds of returning German soldiers from the Damara campaign.

1110.

H.B. Mill, International Geography, p. 454. New York, 1902.

1111.

Henry Norman, All the Russias, p. 273. New York, 1902.

1112.

L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, pp. 54-56. London, 1905.

1113.

Ibid., pp. 181-164.

1114.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, p. 177. London, 1896-1898.

1115.

Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars, Vol. I, pp. 29-30. New York, 1893.

1116.

Pallas, Travels through the Southern Provinces of Russia, Vol. I, pp. 532-533. London, 1812.

1117.

Sir S.W. Baker, Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, p. 88. Hartford, 1868.

1118.

David Livingstone, Missionary Travels, pp. 53-56, 169. New York, 1858.

1119.

Sven Hedin, Central Asia and Tibet, Vol. I, pp. 96, 136, 359, New York and London, 1903. Ellsworth Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, pp. 193, 202, 212, 213. Boston, 1907.

1120.

Sir Francis Younghusband, The Heart of a Continent, pp. 103, 104, 107, 112-116, 120, 125-128, 137, 138, 143. London, 1904.

1121.

S.W. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam, pp. 147, 151. New York, 1900. D.G. Hogarth, The Nearer East, pp. 185, 195. 265. London, 1902.

1122.

Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, Vol. I, pp. 214-218, 267-269. Berlin, 1879.

1123.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, p. 168. London, 1896-1898.

1124.

H.R. Mill, International Geography, pp. 906, 914. New York, 1902.

1125.

H. Barth, Travels in North and Central Africa, Vol. I, pp. 152, 207, 210, 211. New York, 1857.

1126.

Ibid., 41-44, 52, 61-64, 67, 76, 93, 95, 99, 103, 105.

1127.

L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, p. 174. London, 1905.

1128.

Sir Thomas Holdich, India, pp. 91-93. London, 1905.

1129.

M.A. Stein, The Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan, pp. 275-324, 354-408. London, 1903.

1130.

H. Barth, Travels in North and Central Africa, Vol. I, chap. III. New York, 1857.

1131.

Ellsworth Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, pp. 160-190, 209, 304, 309-310, 315, 367. Boston, 1907.

1132.

J.L, Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 57-64, 238-242. London, 1831.

1133.

E. Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, pp. 137-138. Boston, 1907.

1134.

John de Plano Carpini, Journey to the Northeast, pp. 109-111, 120. Hakluyt Society, London, 1904. Journey of William de Rubruquis, pp. 191-193, 203, 224. Hakluyt Society, London, 1903.

1135.

W.W. Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas, p. 80. New York, 1891.

1136.

Vambery, Reise in Mittel Asien, p. 295. Leipzig, 1873.

1137.

Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, Vol. I, pp. 257, 268. Berlin, 1879.

1138.

E. Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, p. 74. Boston, 1907.

1139.

L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, pp. 198-201. London, 1905.

1140.

D. Livingstone, Travels and Researches in South Africa, p. 55. New York, 1859.

1141.

W. Roscher, Grundlagen der Nationalökonomik, Book VI, chap. II, p. 244. Stuttgart, 1886.

1142.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, p. 170. London, 1896-98.

1143.

W.W. Rockhill, Land of the Lamas, p. 80. New York, 1891.

1144.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 106, 187. London, 1831. S.M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam, pp. 162, 268. New York, 1900.

1145.

Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 429, notes 2 and 5, p. 440, note 2, p. 507. London, 1891.

1146.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 47, 48, 70, 71, 191-192, 239. London, 1831.

1147.

S.M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam, p. 128. New York, 1900.

1148.

Ezekiel, Chap. XXVII, 21.

1149.

For economic principle, see W. Roscher, Handel und Gewerbefleiss, pp. 141-147. Stuttgart, 1899.

1150.

Genesis, Chap. XXXVII, 25-28, 36.

1151.

W. Roscher, National-Oekonomik des Ackerbaues, p. 39, Note 11. Stuttgart, 1888.

1152.

S.P. Scott, History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, Vol. III, p. 616. Philadelphia, 1904.

1153.

Felix Dubois, Timbuctoo, pp. 251-252. New York, 1896.

1154.

Ibid., pp. 257-264.

1155.

S.M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam, p. 151. New York, 1900.

1156.

George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 182-184. New York, 1897.

1157.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, p. 65. London, 1831.

1158.

L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, pp. 130-134. London, 1903.

1159.

F.R. Martin, A History of Oriental Carpets before 1800, pp. 9, 29, 69 et seq., 101, 121. Vienna, 1908. G. LeStrange, Land of the Eastern Caliphates, pp. 37, 293-294, 353, 363, 471. Cambridge, 1905.

1160.

J.K. Mumford, Oriental Rugs, pp. 23-40, 100-111. New York, 1895.

1161.

D.G. Hogarth, The Nearer East, pp. 197-198. London, 1902.

1162.

J.K. Mumford, Oriental Rugs, p. 61. New York, 1895.

1163.

J. Ferguson, History of Architecture, Vol. II, pp. 277-278, 499, 500. New York. J. Ferguson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol. II, pp. 210-214. New York, 1891.

1164.

Wilhelm Bode, Vorderasiatische Knüpfteppiche, pp. 3-4. Leipzig.

1165.

Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. V, p. 78. New York, 1858.

1166.

Sir S.W. Baker, Exploration of the Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, pp. 148-152. Hartford, 1868.

1167.

Strabo, Book VII, chap. III, 7, 17; chap. IV, 6. Book XI, chap. II, 1, 2, 3.

1168.

J. Wappaüs, Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik des chemaligen spanischen Mittel- und Sud-Amerika, p. 1019. Leipzig, 1863-1870.

1169.

Sir F. Younghusband, The Heart of a Continent, pp. 72, 74. London, 1904. Alfred Kirchoff, Man and Earth, pp. 58-71. London.

1170.

J.L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol. I, pp. 374-377. London, 1831. L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, pp. 98-100. London, 1905.

1171.

Exodus, Chap. XXII, 1-4, 23.

1172.

John de Plano Carpini, Journey to the Northeast in 1246, pp. 110, 111, 113. Hakluyt Society, London, 1904.

1173.

Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. V, p. 89. New York, 1858. H. Barth, Travels in North and Central Africa, Vol. I, p. 144. New York, 1857.

1174.

E. Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, pp. 121-123. Boston, 1907.

1175.

James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 422. New York, 1897.

1176.

Deuteronomy, VII, 1-3.

1177.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, p. 184. London, 1896-1898.

1178.

Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, Vol. I, pp. 190-197. London, 1907.

1179.

H. Barth, Travels in North and Central Africa, Vol. I, pp. 202, 277-281. New York, 1857.

1180.

Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, p. 173. London, 1896-1898.

1181.

Ibid., Vol. III, Chapter on Islam, pp. 195-204.

1182.

George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 28-30. New York, 1897. L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, pp. 101-105. London, 1905.

1183.

E.A. Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, pp. 114-116. London, 1882.

1184.

George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 88-90. New York, 1897.

1185.

Jeremiah, Chap. XXXV, 6-14.