For tying the logs together use the primitive weaving method. Lay three lengths of rope on the ground, one for the middle and one each for the ends of the logs. Roll one log along the ropes until it rests across the middle of each rope, then turn each rope over the log, forming a bight as in Fig. 37. Bring the lower rope over the upper (Fig. 38) to form a loop, and turn it back over the log (Fig. 39). This leaves the log with three loops of rope around it, one end of each rope lying on the ground, the other end turned back over the log. Now roll another log over the lower ropes up close to the first log (Fig. 40). Bring down the upper ropes over the second log (Fig. 41), cross the lower ropes over the upper ones and turn them back (Fig. 42). Draw the ropes tight and push the logs as closely together as possible; unless your logs are straight there will be wide spaces between. Roll the third log over the lower ropes and make the weaving loop as with the other two, always crossing the lower rope over the upper (Fig. 43). Continue weaving in new logs until the raft is the required width, then tie the ends of the ropes around the last log. Remember to keep the ropes on the ground always in a straight line without slanting them, otherwise the sides of your raft will not be at right angles to the ends, and it will be a crazily built affair, cranky and difficult to manage.
Chop notches on the outside logs where the ropes are to pass over them, and they will keep the rope from slipping out of place (Fig. 44). Cut two, more slender, logs for the ends of the raft and lash them on across the others as in Fig. 45. The end logs should extend a little beyond each side of the raft. Fasten a rope with a strong slip knot to one end of the cross log and wrap it over the log and under the first lengthwise log, then over and under again to form a cross on top. When the rope is under the second time bring it up between the second and third log, then down between the third and fourth log, and so on to the end, when you must make a secure fastening. These cross logs give additional strength, keep the raft in shape, and prevent its shipping too much water.
If you will make a miniature raft, following these directions carefully, when the time comes for you to build a full-sized one you will be quite familiar with the method of construction and will know exactly how to go about it.
For the little raft use small, straight branches about twelve inches long. Twist your slender rope of fibre if you can get it, of string if you cannot, and weave it around the sticks just as you would weave the rope around the logs, finishing off with the two end sticks for the end logs.
If you have a raft you must know how to pole it, and at times it is necessary to pole other kinds of craft. Select a straight pole of strong, green wood eight feet or more in length. The length of the pole will depend upon the depth of the water, for it must be long enough to reach bottom. Trim off all the small branches and make it as smooth as possible.
When the water is deep and calm a pole may sometimes be used as a paddle to send the raft along, but its real purpose is to push from the bottom. In poling you must necessarily stand near the edge of the raft and must therefore be careful not to lean too far over the water lest you lose your balance and fall in.
Poling is a primitive, go-as-you-please method of propelling a craft and is almost free from rules except those suggested by the common sense of the poler. Like the early pioneers, you simply do the best you can under the circumstances and are alert to take advantage of every element in your favor. Where there is a current you pole for it and then allow your raft to float with it, provided it goes in the direction you wish to take and is not too swift. In this case you use your pole for steering, which may sometimes be done from the stern, making a rudder of the pole, at others from the side, and at times reaching down to the river bed. If the current runs the wrong way be careful to keep out of it as much as possible.
Shallow water near the shore is usually the most quiet and the safest for a raft. Here you can generally pole your raft up-stream when the water is deep enough to float it and is not obstructed by rocks, logs, or snags. A raft is not safe where there is a swift current, and there should always be strong arms to manage it.
If you will realize that your body is buoyant, not a dead weight in the water, and that swimming should come as naturally to you as to the wild creatures, it may help you to gain the confidence so essential in learning to swim. If you are not afraid of the water you will not struggle while in it, and the air in your lungs will keep you afloat while you learn to make the movements that will carry you along. You will not sink if you are quite calm and move only your hands under water with a slight paddling movement. Keep in mind that every inch above water but adds so much to the weight to sink you lower. To throw up your arms is the surest way of going straight to the bottom. Do not be afraid to allow the water to come up and partially cover your chin.
All sorts of contrivances have been invented to keep a person afloat while learning to swim, but they all tend to take from, rather than to give confidence, for it is natural to depend entirely upon them and to feel helpless when they are taken away. According to my own experience the best method is to have a friend place a hand under your chin while her feet are touching bottom and to walk with you while you learn to make the swimming movements. This will keep your head above water and give you a sense of security, and you will then strike out confidently. The support rendered is so slight you learn to manage your own weight in the water almost immediately, while you have the feeling that some one upholds you, and the friendly hand may be withdrawn at intervals to allow you to try entirely alone.
You see that after all it is the feeling of being supported more than the actual support that counts, and if you can convince yourself that you need no support you won't need it. It is best to start by swimming toward land instead of away from it. To know that you are not going beyond your depth but are gaining the shore is a great help in conquering fear.
If you are learning alone, begin in quiet, shallow water only deep enough to float you; waist-high is sufficiently deep. Assume the first position for swimming by throwing your body forward with arms extended and palms of hands together, at the same time lifting your feet from the bottom with a spring. This should bring your body out perfectly straight in the water, feet together and arms ready for the first movement.
Now separate your hands, turn them palm outward, and swing your arms around in a half-circle until they extend straight out from the sides, pushing the water back with your hands. In the second movement bend your elbows and bring them down with palms of hands together under your chin, and at the same time draw your legs up under your body with knees and feet still held close together. The third movement is to send your arms shooting straight ahead, while your legs, separating, describe a half-circle and your feet pushing against the water force you forward and then come together again in the first position.
This is a point to be remembered: always thrust your hands forward, to open the way, and your feet back, to push yourself through it, at the same time. It is like a wire spring being freed at both ends at once, each end springing away from the middle. When you push the spring together, that is, when in taking the second movement you draw in your hands and feet, do it slowly; then take the third movement—letting the spring out—quickly, thrusting out your hands in front and your feet at the back with a sudden movement, pushing your feet strongly against the water and stretching yourself out as far as you can reach.
Some people can float who cannot swim. Others can swim but are not able to float. That is, they think they are not and do not seem willing to try, but it is quite necessary every one should know how to rest in the water, and learning to float is very essential.
The hand of a friend will help you in this as in learning to swim, but for floating it is held under the back of your head instead of under your chin. Lie on your back with legs straight before you, feet together, arms close at your sides, and head thrown back; trust the water to bear you up and all that is necessary to keep you afloat is a rotary motion of your hands under water. After a time all movement may be given up and you will lie easily and quietly as on a bed. It is said that it is easier for women and girls to float than for men, because their bones are lighter, and some learn to float the first time they enter the water; all of which is very encouraging to girls. Breathe deeply but naturally while floating, for the more air there is in your lungs the more buoyant will be your body and the higher it will float. If your body is inclined to roll from side to side spread out your arms under water until you steady yourself. If your feet persist in sinking extend your arms above your head under water and this will maintain the balance.
Do not try to lift your head, but keep it well back in the water. If your nose and mouth are out that is all that is necessary. Let your muscles relax and lie limply.
To regain your feet after floating bring your arms in front and pull on the water with scooped hands while raising your body from the hips.
You will learn to dive merely for the joy of the quick plunge into cool waters, but there are times when to understand diving may mean the saving of your own or some one else's life, and no matter how suddenly or unexpectedly you are cast into the water by accident, you will retain your self-possession and be able to strike out and swim immediately.
One should never dive into unknown water if it can be avoided, but as on the trail all water is likely to be unknown, investigate it well before diving and look out for hidden rocks. Do not dive into shallow water; that is dangerous. If you are to dive from the bank some distance above the water, stand on the edge with your toes reaching over it. Extend your arms, raise them, and duck your head between with your arms, forming an arch above, your ears covered by your arms. Lock your thumbs together to keep your hands from separating when they strike the water. Bend your knees slightly and spring from them, but straighten them immediately so that you will be stretched full length as you enter the water. As soon as your body is in the water curve your back inward, lift your head up, and make a curve through the water to the surface.
Breathe through your nose always when swimming as well as when walking. To open your mouth while swimming is usually to swallow a pint or two of water. Exhale your breath as you thrust your hands forward, inhale it as you bring them back. "Blow your hands from you."
In treading water you maintain an upright position as in walking. Some one says: "To tread water is like running up-stairs rapidly." Try running up-stairs and you will get the leg movement. While the water is up to your neck, bend your elbows and bring your hands to the surface, then keep the palms pressing down the water. The principle is the same as in swimming. When you swim you force the water back with your hands and feet and so send your body forward. When you tread water you force the water down with your hands and feet and so send your body, or keep it, up.
It is even possible to stand quite still in deep water when you learn to keep your balance. All you do is to spread out your arms at the sides on a line with your shoulders and keep your head well back. You may go below the surface once or twice until you learn, but you will come up again and the feat is well worth while. What an outdoor girl should strive for is to become thoroughly at home in the water so that she may enter it fearlessly and know what to do when she is there.
Just here would seem to be the place to talk of fishing, but I am not going to try to tell you how to fish; that would take a volume, there are so many kinds of fish and so many ways of fishing. One way is to cut a slender pole, tie a fish-line on the small end, tie a fish-hook to the end of the line, bait it with an angleworm, stand on the bank, drop the hook and bait into the water, and await results. Another way is to put together a delicate, quivering fishing-rod, carefully select a "fly," adjust it, stand on the bank, or in a boat, and "cast" the fly far out on the water with a dexterous turn of the wrist. You may catch fish in either way, but in some cases the pole and angleworm is the surest.
A visitor stood on the bank of our Pike County lake and skilfully sent his fly skimming over the water while the boy of the family, catching perch with his home-cut pole and angleworms, was told to watch and learn. He did watch politely for a while, then turned again to his own affairs. Once more some one said: "Look at Mr. J., boy, and learn to cast a fly." But the boy, placidly fishing, returned: "I'd rather know how to catch fish." It was true the boy had caught the fish and the skilful angler had not. All of which goes to prove that if it is fish you want, just any kind of fish and not the excitement of the sport, a pole like the boy's will probably be equal to all requirements. But there are black bass in the lake, and had one of them been in that particular part of it, no doubt the fly would have tempted him, and the experience and skill of Mr. J. supplemented by his long, flexible rod, his reel and landing net, would have done the rest, while the boy had little chance of such a bite and almost none of landing a game fish like the bass.
If you want to fish, and every girl on the trail should know how, take it up in a common-sense way and learn from an experienced person. Own a good, serviceable rod and fishing tackle and let it be your business to know why they are good. Make up your mind to long, patient, trying waits, to early and late excursions, and to some disappointments. Take a fisherman's luck cheerfully and carry the thing through like a true sportsman. There is one thing to remember which sportsmen sometimes forget in the excitement of the game and that is not to catch more fish than you have use for. One need not be cruel even to cold-blooded fish, nor need one selfishly grab all one can get merely for the sake of the getting and without a thought for those who are to come after. We have all heard of good fishing places which have been "fished out," and that could not be if the fishermen had taken only as many as they could use. This rule holds good all through the wild: Take what you need, it is yours, but all the rest belongs to others.
Every outdoor girl should know what knots to use for various purposes and how to tie them, but only those which will be found useful on the trail are given here.
There are three different kinds of bends that are given a rope in the process of tying a knot, and each bend has its own name. You must learn these in order to understand the directions for knot-tying; they are: the bight, the loop, and the round turn.
The bight (Fig. 46) is made by bending the rope so that the sides are parallel. The loop (Fig. 47) is made by lapping one rope of the bight across the other. The round turn (Fig. 48) is made by carrying one rope of the loop all the way around to the other side, making half of the loop double.
This is probably what you would at first call a hard knot, and so it is a hard knot to come untied of itself or to slip, but it is easy to untie when necessary. The hard knot most people tie is not quite the same as the square knot, though it does resemble it.
The ordinary hard knot is what is known as the granny knot, a slurring name which means a failure. The granny knot will not always stay tied, it often slips and it cannot be trusted when absolute security is needed.
Begin the square knot with the single first tie (Fig. 49). You see the end X turns up over the other rope while the end O laps under the rope. Now bring the two ends together, lapping X over O (Fig. 50). Then pass X back under O, making the single tie once more. Now compare what you have done with Fig. 51. Notice in the drawing that the ends of rope X are both over the right-hand bight, and the ends of rope O are both under the left-hand bight. Draw the square knot tight and it looks like Fig. 52
You cannot make a mistake in tying the square knot if you remember to notice which end is on top, or laps over the other rope when the first single tie is made (Fig. 49), and then be sure to lap this same end over the other end in making the second tie which finishes the knot.
Use the figure-eight knot to make a knot on the end of a rope or to prevent the end of the strands from untwisting. Form a loop like Fig. 53 near the end of the rope, bringing the short end over the long rope; then pass the short end under the long rope once, as shown by dotted line, and carry it up over and through the loop (Fig. 54). Pull it up tightly to bring the end square across the rope (Fig. 53). This knot is not difficult to untie.
To form a loop that will not slip and yet may be easily untied use the bow-line knot.
(1) When the loop is not fastened to anything use the overhand method of tying it. First measure off sufficient rope for the loop you wish to make and hold the place with your left hand (this place is indicated by the arrow in Fig. 56); then with your right hand throw the short end of the rope over the long rope (Fig. 56). Still holding the short end with your right hand, with the left hand bring the long rope up to form a loop over the end (Fig. 54). Now with your right hand take up the end, draw it farther through the loop, and pass it behind the long rope above the loop, from right to left (Fig. 58). Bring the end forward again and slip it downward through the loop (Fig. 59). Draw the knot tight and it cannot slip, no matter how great the strain.
(2) Use the underhand method when the loop is passed around something or through a ring. This loop may be put around the neck of a horse or cow without danger of injury, for it will not slip and tighten. It can also be used in place of the hitching tie.
Slip the rope through the ring, or around the object, from left to right while you hold the long rope in your left hand. Take a half-hitch around the long rope, passing the end over the long rope, then under it. This makes a loop like Fig. 60. Transfer this loop from the short rope to the long rope by holding loosely, or giving slack, with the left hand and pulling up with the right. A little practise will enable you to do this easily. Fig. 61 shows the loop transferred to the long rope with the short end passing through it. At this stage carry the short end over, then under the long rope below the loop (Fig. 62), then up and through the loop as in Fig. 63. Tighten the knot by pulling on both the long rope and the short end.
It is sometimes necessary to shorten a rope temporarily and not desirable to cut it, and the sheep-shank knot solves the problem. It is used by the sailors, who do not believe in cutting ropes. It will stand a tremendous strain without slipping, but will loosen when held slack, and can be untied by a quick jerk of the two outside ropes forming the bights.
Begin by bending the rope to form two bights as in A, Fig. 64, carry the single rope over at the top of the bend, then under to form a half-hitch as in B. Do the same with the other single rope at the bottom of the bend C, and draw both ends tight (D). With a little practise this can be done very quickly. If the rope is to be permanently shortened pass the ends through the first and second bights at the bend as in E, and the knot will hold for any length of time.
This is the simplest of all knots to start with in tying up a parcel. Begin by making a knot about one inch from the end of your twine, using the single tie like F (Fig. 65). If this does not make the knot large enough use the figure-eight knot. The single tie is sufficient in ordinary cases. Wrap your twine once around your parcel, lapping the long twine over the knotted end as in G. Bring the knotted end over the long twine, forming a bight, then over and under its own twine with the single tie (H). Draw the tie up close to the knot at the end; the knot prevents it from slipping off. Now the long twine may be drawn tight or loosened at will, and will hold the first wrap in place while the twine is being wrapped around the package in a different place.
When you have two or more parallel twines on your parcel and have begun to bring down the cross-line, secure it to each twine in this way: Bring the long twine down and loop it under the first twine to form a bight as in I (Fig. 66).
Then carry the long twine over, itself forming a loop (J), then under the first twine as in K.
Draw tight and proceed to the second twine, making the same cross-tie.
When you have carried your cross-line entirely around the parcel, tie it securely to the first twine where it began and finish with a single-tie knot, making a knot on the last end of the twine close to the fastening, to keep the end from slipping through.
The fisherman's knot is used by fishermen to tie silkworm gut together. It is easily untied by pulling the two short ends, but it never slips. Lay the two ropes side by side (L, Fig. 67), then make a loop around one rope with the other rope, passing the end under both ropes (M). Bring the end over and into the loop to make a single tie (N). Tie the end of the second rope around the first rope in the same manner (N) and draw both knots tight (O).
The halter or slip knot is often convenient, but should never be used around the neck of an animal, for if either end is pulled it will slip and tighten, thereby strangling the creature.
First form a bight, then with one end of the rope make a single tie around the other rope (Fig. 68).
If you have anything to do with horses or boats you must know how to make the proper ties for hitching the horse to a post, or a boat to a tree, stump, or anything else that is handy.
The half-hitch is a loop around a rope with the short end secured under the loop (Fig. 69). This answers for a temporary, but not a secure, fastening.
When you want a temporary fastening, secure yet easily undone, make a timber-hitch (Fig. 70). Pass the rope around an object, take a half-hitch around the rope, and pass the short end once more between the rope and the object.
If the hitching tie is properly made, and the knot turned to the right of the post, the stronger the pull on the long end of the rope, the tighter the hold, and the loop will not slip down even on a smooth, plain post. If the knot is turned to the left, or is directly in front, the loop will not pull tight and will slide down. For the reason that the loop will tighten, the hitching tie should never be used around the neck of a horse, as it might pull tight and the animal be strangled.
In making the hitching tie, first pass the rope from left to right around the post, tree, or stump; bring it together and hold in the left hand. The left hand is represented by the arrow (Fig. 71). With the right hand throw the short end of the rope across the ropes in front of the left hand, forming a loop below the left hand (Fig. 72). Slip the right hand through this loop, grasp the rope just in front, and pull it back to form a bight, as you make a chain-stitch in crocheting (Fig. 73). Down through this last bight pass the end of the rope and pull the knot tight (Fig. 74).
One learns quickly how to take care of oneself while on the trail, and serious accidents seldom occur. In fact, every member of the party takes pride in keeping herself free from accident; it is so like a tenderfoot to get hurt. However, it is well to be prepared in case accidents do occur, and this chapter is intended to forearm you that you may not stand helplessly by when your aid is needed.
The best immediate treatment for ordinary sprains and bruises is the application of cloths dipped in very hot water. This takes out the soreness and prevents inflammation. As soon as one application cools a little, a hot one should take its place, as hot as can be borne without scalding the flesh. Very cold water can be used when hot is not obtainable. For a sprained ankle or wrist continue this treatment for a while and then bind smoothly and firmly with a clean cotton bandage. Keep as quiet as possible with a sprained ankle, and if the accident occurs when on a walk the fireman's lift may be used for carrying the injured person to camp.
To be able to use the fireman's lift may be to save a life, as it can be employed when there is but one person to do the carrying. With practise any girl of ordinary strength can lift and carry another of her own size or even larger.
In order to make the lift easy, instruct the patient to relax all her muscles and become perfectly limp; then turn her on her face, stand over her body with one foot at each side, face toward the patient's head. Lean forward and place your hands under her arms, then gently raise her to her knees, next slide your hands quickly down around her body at the low waist-line, lifting her at the same time to her feet. Immediately grasp her right wrist with your left hand, and pass your head under her right arm and your right arm under one or both of her knees, shifting the patient's hips well on your shoulders, rise to a standing position and carry patient away.
The accidents that most frequently happen are simple cuts and bruises.
For a slight cut wash the wound in lukewarm water to remove all dirt or foreign matter, then press the lips or sides together and hold them in place with strips of court-plaster or surgeon's adhesive plaster. Do not cover the entire wound with the plaster, but put strips across at right angles with the cut, leaving a space between every two strips and using only enough plaster to keep the cut closed. Cover the hurt part with a bandage to protect it from further injury.
When an artery is cut the wound is more serious and the bleeding must be stopped immediately. When the blood comes from an artery it is bright red in color and flows copiously in spurts or jets. The blood in the arteries is flowing away from the heart, therefore you must stop it between the cut and the heart. It is the arteries in the arms and legs that are most likely to be injured. In the arm the large artery runs down the inner side of the upper arm. In the leg the artery runs down the inner side of the upper leg.
To stop the bleeding press the artery above the wound firmly with your fingers while some one prepares a tourniquet. Use a handkerchief, a necktie, or anything of the kind for a tourniquet; tie it loosely around the limb and in the bandage place a smooth stone (or something that will take its place), adjusting it just above your fingers on the artery. Then slip a strong, slender stick about ten inches long under the bandage at the outer side of the arm or leg and turn the stick around like the hand of a clock, until the stone presses the artery just as your fingers did. Tie the stick above and below the bandage to keep it from untwisting.
Do not forget that the tourniquet is cutting off circulation, and for this to continue very long is dangerous. It is not safe to keep it on more than one hour without loosening. If the hand or foot grows cold and numb before that time loosen the tourniquet and rub briskly to restore circulation. Should the wound begin to bleed again when the tourniquet is loosened, be ready to tighten at once.
In case of an accident of this kind summon a physician, if one can be reached quickly. If not, take the patient to the nearest doctor, for the artery must be tied as soon as possible and only a physician or skilful trained nurse can do that part of the work.
Loss of blood is too weakening to permit of the patient walking, and the exertion may start the wound bleeding again, so a stretcher of some kind must be contrived in which she may be carried. You can make a good emergency stretcher of two strong poles of green wood, one large blanket, and the ever-useful horse-blanket safety-pins. The poles should be about six feet long, of a size to clasp easily in your hand, and as smooth as they can be made with hurried work. They should, at least, be free from jagged stumps or branches and twigs.
Begin by folding the blanket through the middle over one of the poles, then pin the blanket together with the large safety-pins, with the pins about six inches apart, to hold the pole in place. That finishes one side; for the other, lap the two edges of the blanket over the second pole and pin them down like a hem. The stretcher will be of double thickness and will hold the injured person comfortably.
If a serious accident should occur some distance from camp and there are no blankets to use, do not hesitate to appropriate for a stretcher whatever you have with you. When there is nothing else cut your khaki skirt into strips about twelve inches wide and tie the ends to two poles (the poles need not be smooth except at the ends), leaving spaces between.
Personally I have repudiated the old method of treating simple burns and scalds and, instead of applying oil or flour, have discovered for myself that simply holding a slightly burned finger or hand in a running stream of cold water not only gives instant relief but prevents the pain from returning in any severity. Care of the injured part to prevent the skin from breaking and causing a sore is the only thing left to be done. However, here are the ordinary remedies for burns. Any of the following things spread over a piece of linen or soft cotton cloth are said to be good: olive-oil, carbolized vaseline, fresh lard, cream, flour, and baking-soda. For serious burns a physician should be called.
This will seldom occur in a camp of healthy girls whose stomachs and blood are in good order, but it is best not to expose oneself to the fierce rays of the sun during a period of intense heat, or directly after eating. In case any one is overcome and complains of feeling faint, and of dizziness and throbbing head, take her where it is cool, in the shade if possible, lay her down, loosen her clothing, and apply cold water to her face and head. She will probably be able to walk when she revives, but if not, carry her home or into camp. Do not give whiskey, brandy, or any stimulants.
As a rule all that is necessary to remove "something" in your eye is to take the eyelashes of the upper lid between your thumb and forefinger and pull the lid down over the lower one. The lower lashes thus shut in, combined with the tears that flood the eye, will clean the eye in most cases.
If the cinder or other substance is embedded in the upper lid, roll back the lid over a match (the sulphur end taken off), then moisten a corner of a handkerchief and with it remove the cinder. If this treatment does not avail and the substance cannot be removed, put a drop of olive-oil in the eye, close it and cover with a soft bandage, then go to a physician. Do not put anything stiff or hard into the eye.
Fainting occurs most often in overheated and over-crowded places where the air is impure. The proper treatment is to lay the patient flat on her back with the head lower than the rest of the body and feet raised; then loosen the clothes at waist and neck, sprinkle the face and neck with cold water, and hold smelling salts or ammonia to the nostrils. Insist upon giving her all the fresh air possible. It is good also to rub the limbs with the motion upward toward the body.