For Argument:
Nature study to be most valuable must be in reality the study of nature. Its beginnings are in observation and experiment, but there comes a time when the child must go to books for information and enlightenment. The purposes of nature study are to awaken a spirit of inquiry concerning things in the immediate vicinity and thence in wider fields; to develop observation, comparison and reason; to give interests that will charm the possessor through life; to introduce the elements of the natural sciences. Enthusiasts have made the study of nature the basis of all school work, the correlating force in all studies. Such an idea has merit in it, for it is certain that lessons begun in the observation of living things and the phenomena of nature speedily ramify into language, reading, geography, history, and even mathematics.
There is among some an unfortunate tendency to go too much to books for material and to seize too quickly any suggestion that leads in that direction. Yet books are valuable at the proper time and in the proper place. When facts have been learned, they may be made vital by good literary selections; when facts not accessible by observation are needed, they may be obtained through books. On the other hand, literature is full of allusions to natural facts and phenomena and may only be understood by him who knows nature. Both phases of the subject are of vital interest.
Instead of attempting any systematic outline for nature study we will here try to give help on two problems only:
First. How may nature study be broadened by the use of literature?
Second. How may the study of nature help in the appreciation of literature?
In trying to answer the first question we will present first a classified list of selections from Journeys Through Bookland which are closely related to the study of nature and indicate briefly how they may be used.
In the first place, there are long selections in which there are many anecdotes and incidents which are usable in nature study. We will give partial lists of what is to be found therein, but it is well to read the whole selection and choose what is best for the occasion.
1. Tom, the Water Baby (Volume II, page 215). This is one of the most charming stories in the book, especially for young children, though older ones and even people of mature years will enjoy it thoroughly. Tom, a little chimney sweep, after perilous adventures, dies, or rather turns into a newt or eft, a water baby. His exciting life thereafter is in the waters, where he meets many of its strange denizens. The whole story is highly imaginative, humorous, and full of fine lessons, beautifully given. The more important of his adventures, from our point of view, are concerned with the following:
2. Robinson Crusoe (Volume III, page 45). Two chapters only are given from this great story, but the first, dealing with the capture and education of Crusoe’s man Friday, may be worth while to read in connection with studies of savage races. It is not altogether scientific.
3. The Swiss Family Robinson (Volume III, page 99). This famous old story will be charming to children for many generations to come. It is a tale of the wonderful struggle of a family against nature. It may be a fact that it is unreasonable and impossible; that not all the seeming facts are true; that nature never plays so perfectly into the hand of man; that not all the living things mentioned are to be found in one locality. But it is clean, wholesome adventure, and the errors in it will do no harm. Many a good language lesson and many an addition to nature lessons may be drawn from it. The efforts of the family to utilize what they find, though too successful, are worthy of imitation. Some of the more interesting things met by the family are the following:
4. Brute Neighbors (Volume VII, page 260) is an interesting essay by Henry David Thoreau, the most delightful of American naturalist writers. In this essay he chats familiarly about the animals that surround his cottage in the woods, and shows the closeness of his observation as well as the breadth of his general knowledge. It is a nature study in itself as a whole. Besides mention of other animals, he tells interesting anecdotes of the following:
5. The Pond in Winter (Volume VII, page 280). This is another of Thoreau’s charming essays in natural history. It contains a pretty description of the snow and ice covered pond (page 280), an account of fishing through the ice (pages 282-283), and a vivid description of the pickerel (pages 283-284).
6. Winter Animals (Volume VII, page 293) is a third one of Thoreau’s essays. An analysis shows that he tells something of all the following interesting things:
7. Trees and Ants That Help Each Other (Volume VII, page 306) is a selection from the writings of Thomas Belt. It is an extremely interesting account of some of the curious adaptations of plants and animals to each other, as is indicated sufficiently by the title. An outline of the essay follows:
The following selections, ranging from nursery rhymes to some of the finest things ever written, may be considered available for the purpose of creating interest in nature study or of adding to a stock of knowledge already acquired. For convenience, they are classified in a general way, according to the subject-matter of which they treat:
Aid in answering the second problem may be found in the following paragraph:
A series of interesting studies may be founded on the use which authors make of nature by way of direct and indirect allusion in their works. Such lessons are the opposite of those we have been considering. Now, the literary selection is taken first, read carefully and the allusions noted and classified. It will be noticed that it is not necessary that selections used for this purpose should be new to the pupils. In fact, genuine literature has the merit of being always new, always interesting. No better service can be rendered to a child than to create in him a love for the fine things in literature. Continued, monotonous study of a masterpiece may breed dislike of it, especially if the exercises are dull and formal. But to approach an old favorite from a new direction, to look at it from a new point of view, is to lend it added charms.
A. To illustrate our method, we will use The King of the Golden River (Volume II, page 405).
1. Assignment. The leader assigns the work as follows: “I wish you to read the first section of The King of the Golden River and write in the order of their occurrence, every mention of a living thing or natural object and every allusion to them. Use the words of the story when possible, but be brief. After each put a number, to show the page of the story. Let us see who can find the greatest number and who can make the best paper.”
2. Preparation. If the children work well their lists will be something like this:
3. Recitation. The leader’s part in the recitation is to help the children to classify the things mentioned, to bring out the meaning of the figures of speech, and to see that the allusions are understood.
In writing this fine chapter, Ruskin has mentioned or alluded to the following:
a. Land and water forms: Mountains; valley; snow; peaks; cataracts; river; circular hollow; mill stream; cloud; rain; globe of foam.
b. Animals: Sheep (mutton); bird (feathers); puppy; dog (licking its chops); wolf (howling wind); cattle.
c. Plant life: Crops; hay; apples; grapes; corn; vines; straw; cork; trees.
d. Natural phenomena: A wet summer wind blowing; gushing rain; whirling clouds; misty moonbeam; floating foam; sweeping inundation; breezes (breezy letters).
e. Rock material: Quicksilver; red sand; gray mud.
f. Natural products: Crops; apples; hay; grapes; wine; honey; corn; mutton; cork; cattle.
g. Figures of speech: (In studying figures of speech, make three points in each, viz.: First, the basis of the figure; second, the translation of the figure into literal English; third, the force and beauty of the figure and its effect on the meaning of the sentence. With older children the names of the figures may be given. Illustrations of these directions will follow.)
(1) Like a beaten puppy’s tail. (A beaten puppy drops his tail and drags it weakly behind him. The feather drooped down behind him and dragged limply along. The figure gives a vivid picture of the wet feather, limp and unhandsome. The figure is a comparison in the form of a simile.)
(2) Like a mill stream. (Rushing, roaring, fast and furious.)
(3) Licking its chops. (First, a dog runs out his tongue and licks his lips and the outside of his face [cheeks—chops] when he sees food brought to him. A red flame twists and waves around like the tongue of a dog. We speak of “tongues of flame” and “hungry flames devouring.” Second, long streams of flame waved around and curled about the wood as they burned it. Third, how much more vivid is the picture we see of the beautiful fire. The words “rustling” and “roaring” help to strengthen the figure. This is a fine comparison, but as it is not directly expressed by the use of the words “like” or “as” we call it a metaphor.)
(4) Quicksilver-like streams. (Bright, shining, smoothly running, with metallic luster.)
(5) Like a straw in the high wind. (Rapid, uncertain, irregular motion.)
(6) A wreath of ragged cloud. (Notice the metaphor in wreath—also in ragged.)
(7) Howling wind. (A wolf howls. The figure which raises an inanimate object to the level of animate beings, or raises an animate being [a dog, for instance] to the level of a human being, is called personification.)
(8) Like a cork.
(9) Swept away.
(10) Breezy letters. (The words swept and breezy are somewhat metaphorical, though their frequent use in this manner makes the meaning almost literal.)
(11) Southwest Wind, Esquire. (Personification.)
B. A second lesson may confine itself more closely to the figures of speech. Naturally this study of figures belongs with language and literature, but the point we wish to make is one of correlation. There is a literary side to nature study, and a natural history side to literature. Many of the greatest authors have been ardent lovers of nature, and have drawn liberally on their knowledge of nature in beautifying what they have written. Many a reader, from lack of knowledge or from careless habits, passes over the most delightful things, as blind and deaf as he who sees no beauty in the wild flowers and hears no melody in the songs of birds.
For the second lesson of this character we will take the second and third chapters of The King of the Golden River, hoping to find an abundance of figures based on nature in some of its forms. We may not find many. Some writers use few. We suspect that Ruskin used them freely; as a matter of fact he was one of the greatest lovers of nature, a man who labored hard to bring art and nature together and to find a place for them in the lives of all.
We find in the second chapter the following nature figures:
a. Southwest Wind, Esquire, page 418.
b. His relations, the West Winds, page 418.
c. It looks more like silk, page 419.
d. The hot breath of the furnace, page 420.
e. Bright tongues of fiery cloud burning and quivering about them, page 420.
f. A clear metallic voice, page 420.
g. Like that of a kettle on the boil, page 421.
h. As smooth and polished as a river, page 421.
i. The prismatic colors gleamed over it, as if on a surface of mother-of-pearl, page 422.
j. In order to allow time for the consternation ... to evaporate, page 424.
In the third chapter are the following:
a. Knotty question, page 426.
b. Like a line of forked lightning, page 427.
(This whole paragraph is a wonderfully beautiful description.)
c. Rose like slow smoke, page 427.
d. In feeble wreaths, page 428.
e. Shrieks resembling those of human voices in distress or pain, page 428.
f. None like the ordinary forms of splintered ice, page 428.
g. Deceitful shadows, page 428.
h. Lurid lights played, page 428.
i. Ice yawned into fresh chasms, page 428.
j. Fell thundering across his path, page 429.
k. Rays beat intensely, page 429.
l. Its lips parched and burning, page 430.
m. Long snake-like shadows, page 430.
n. The leaden weight of the dead air pressed upon his brow and heart, page 430.
o. Shaped like a sword, page 431.
p. Like a red-hot ball, page 431.
q. They shook their crests like tongues of fire, page 432.
r. Flashes of bloody light gleamed along their foam, page 432.
s. An icy chill shot through his limbs, page 432.
t. The moaning of the river, page 432.
u. The Black Stone, page 432.
The connection between geography and history on the one hand and literature on the other is most intimate. In the first place nearly all our knowledge of history must come through reading, and while we learn our geography most accurately through travel and observation, but a small part of our information comes through those channels. We read incessantly of our own country and others, we fill our minds with visions of plants, animals and the peoples of foreign lands from the facts we gather from the papers, magazines and books. If most of our facts come through reading it is no less true that most of our real interest in geography and history comes not from the facts of our text-books but from the literature we have read, the literature that clothed those facts and made them real and living. Ask yourselves what gave you your first real interest in the history of Scotland and see if your answer is not, “The novels of Scott.” Again, where did you get your first adequate ideas of chivalry and the feudal system if it was not from Ivanhoe or some similar piece of literature? What makes the Crimean War a household word in the homes of two continents if it is not the deeds of Florence Nightingale and Tennyson’s Charge of the Light Brigade? Who can tell most of the Battle of Waterloo, he who has read the facts of history or he who has read Byron’s thrilling poem and the description by Victor Hugo? Who knows the English home as it was? He who reads Goldsmith’s Deserted Village.
It is in furnishing those literary masterpieces that give life to geography and inspiration to history that Journeys Through Bookland gives the best of assistance to boys and girls in their school work. Some of its selections will give facts and many of them, but the facts form the smaller part of the contribution. History is valuable only as it enables us to understand the present, thrills us with the accomplishments of the past and teaches us how to live and act in the future. No man is so wrapped up in business that he does not heed the charm of noble deeds and fails to be moved by glorious achievement. Some histories are literature in themselves and have the inspiring quality we crave, but most of them are too dry and scientific to afford much interest to the child. So the greater part of our selections are not from the books that are called real history but from those which appeal to the imagination and stir the soul. Geographical teaching is likewise indirect in Journeys but it is none the less helpful and inspiring. To prove the truth of these statements we have only to present what the books contain and show how the selections may be used.
It does not seem wise to separate the two subjects too widely, for they are closely related and intimately interwoven in almost all reading. There are, it is true, some masterpieces that may be considered purely geographical and others that are as entirely historical, but these will be easily identified. Yet for ease and readiness in locating them we append a list of nearly one hundred selections and classify them in a simple manner:
The object of teaching geography and history is not solely that children may acquire a collection of facts. Too often the lessons in these branches consist merely in memorizing text books, in learning long descriptions, in the study of meaningless maps and in the listing of political and military events in chronological order. The value of such work is comparatively small, and the studies cannot be considered profitable. If, however, children are taught to know and understand people, their habits and modes of life; if they learn geographical facts in their relation to humanity, to study events in the relation of cause to effect, to seek for truth and the meaning of things, then nothing is more productive of good than the teaching of geography and history.
If we accept as true the foregoing statements, then methods of teaching the subjects become clear as we think of them. It is evident that early lessons should be designed to create interest:
(1) In the world of things immediately around us; in the land and what grows and lives upon it; in the water, its relation to the land, its motions, and the life that it contains; in the air, its phenomena and its denizens; in human beings, their feelings and all their activities.
(2) In the great earth as a whole and its parts; in foreign animals and plants; in humanity in other lands.
It appears that so broad an outline as the one just given can never be filled in, that the study of geography and history, the study of the world and its peoples, can never be completed. If such is the case, it follows that the teacher who creates the most vital interest in the subject, who leaves with her pupils the most ardent desire to study and know, has been of greatest service to them.
Now, the great interests of life have their inception in early years when the mind is active, curiosity strong, and instruction accepted without question. Then should be created that abiding interest which will make good students of geography and history, good citizens, good men and women. If too many formal lessons are given them, and pupils are set to work at dreary tasks and are asked to memorize dry facts, it is probable that they will never become good students. How, then, shall an abiding interest be created?
The entrance to the field of geography is through nature study, which is discussed elsewhere under that title. For the first two years of a child’s school life he will hear nothing of geography, and even in the third year there will be little formal reference to it, but all the time he is quietly mastering facts and developing interests that are geographical in their character.
When systematic lessons begin, there should be presented only real facts and genuine things, that bear some close and direct relation to ourselves and that should be matters of personal observation, as far as possible. Day and night in summer and winter, the seasons, the weather, wind, rain, snow, sleet, foods, clothing, the occupations of the neighborhood, the brooks and bodies of water about the school, hills, valleys, plains, plants and animals of the locality, each in turn serves its purpose. We cannot here show how these various subjects should be treated, but to illustrate the use of literature in elementary geography lessons we will present an outline on a single subject. New possibilities will be seen in every direction if frequent use of the list given above is made in finding suitable selections.
If we choose the wind as the subject of our model lesson, we may be sure to cover several recitations that will lead us into reading, nature study and language (oral and written). It is a subject that encourages wide correlation. The outline might be the following:
If we wish a model for a history lesson, the following will answer:
One of the interesting characters in history is King Alfred of England, and in the sketch of him (Volume IV, page 260) are facts enough for several elementary lessons in history. The outline for teaching might be as follows:
“More than a thousand years ago, Alfred, the youngest of the four sons of the king, was born. He was a fine lad and the favorite of his parents, but when he was twelve years of age he had not yet learned to read. This is not so strange, when we stop to think that it was long before people knew anything about printing, and every letter in every book had to be slowly made with a pen.
“This made books very expensive and rare, so that only a few people could own even one. Still, you have no idea how beautiful some of those books were. They were written on thin, fine-grained leather called parchment, and were beautifully decorated in colors. The capital letters which began paragraphs, and sometimes all the capital letters, were made large, in fanciful shapes, and all around them were painted flowers, birds, human beings, or pretty designs, so that each letter was a beautiful picture in itself. Then in the margins, above the titles, at every place where there was no writing were still other delicate designs. Some of those wonderful old books are still in existence, and people go long distances to see them. They are more valuable now than ever, and most of them are safely guarded in museums.
“One day Alfred’s mother was reading to her children, from one of those beautiful books, some fine poems which the Saxons had written. The boys all became very much interested in the rich little paintings that decorated it. The mother pointed out its beauties and told the boys how carefully the artists had worked and how long it had taken them to do it.
“‘Did you ever see its equal?’ she asked.
“‘No,’ replied the oldest boy, ‘I have not seen anything like it. I wish I had one like it.’
“‘Boys,’ said the mother, ‘this is one of the greatest treasures I have, and I would not like to part with it. Yet I love my boys better than the book, and I want them to learn to read. So this is what I will gladly do: I will give this book to the first of you who comes to me and shows that he can read it understandingly.’
“‘It is my book, for I can read some already,’ said the oldest.
“‘But I can work harder than you, and I will learn faster,’ said the second.
“‘I learn more easily than any of you,’ the third boy added. ‘I feel sure I shall win the book.’
“Alfred said nothing, but as soon as his mother had ceased to read he hurried away, found a wise man to teach him and began immediately to work with great diligence. It was not long before he began to read for himself, and before his brothers had made much progress Alfred went to his mother.
“‘I think I can read the book,’ he said.
“‘I do not think you have had time to learn. You are hurrying too much. You should study more,’ his mother replied.
“‘But, mother, please let me try,’ pleaded Alfred.
“The mother yielded and Alfred brought the big book to her and laid it on her knee. Then he opened it at the beginning and with very few mistakes read poem after poem. His mother was more than satisfied, and when Alfred left the room he was hugging the elegant book and carrying it to his part of the castle.
“This was only the beginning, for Alfred became the greatest scholar and the wisest king the Saxons ever had. He made just laws, he ruled kindly, he founded schools, and he tried in every way to make his subjects better, wiser and happier. Do you not think it all began in his love for the beautiful look?”
3. Recitation.
Ask questions and make the children see in the story:
a. (The Introduction.) The first general facts about Alfred.
b. (The Body of the Narrative.) The story of how Alfred learned to read.
c. (The Conclusion.) Alfred wins the prize and becomes a great ruler.
Then ask them to tell the story in their own words.
Finally ask them to write the story for a composition.
4. Additional Information. Find out what other things about Alfred are already known to the class. Then tell the story of Alfred and the cakes (page 261); of his battles with the Danes under Guthrum (page 262); of his war with the Danes under Hastings (page 263); of his work for his people (page 264); and of his plans and inventions (page 265).
5. Supplementary Readings. If the lessons on Alfred have been well conducted, interest will have been created in a variety of subjects relating to early English history. The Saxons, their mode of life, armor, weapons, manner of warfare, laws and customs; the Danes and their characteristics; the rulers who followed Alfred; the formation of the English nation, are topics that readily suggest themselves.
More or less closely connected with these lines of thought are the following selections in Journeys Through Bookland. Interest may be deflected in any direction. If the selections are too hard for the class to read, tell the stories in simplified form:
It will be noticed that while this outline is given for use with young children, it easily may be adapted to the use of older ones and may lead into a wide course in historical reading.
The textbook in history is necessarily brief and really little more than an outline of events. In many instances the book gives too much space to battles, sieges and military movements and too little to the conditions of life, to manners, customs and causes and effects of events. Yet the textbook is a valuable guide and enables anyone to present the subject logically and to systematize what is learned, if nothing more.
What a wide range of subjects is covered in the study of history! What abundance of material for study is required! Dates must be learned and events arranged chronologically; maps must be studied, fixed in mind and made of real value by a comprehension of the things they are supposed to represent; military events must be understood in relation to the causes that lead to them and the results that follow. Some few battles or campaigns must be made vivid enough to give an idea of the expense, the labor, the suffering and the horrors involved in war; government, educational and religious institutions, religious and social customs and financial methods must be studied; industries and amusements, the lives of the people, food and food supplies, the production of clothing and building material must be examined; in fact, each one of the multiform interests of humanity may be a fair topic for study at some time in the history class.
Methods of instruction must be as varied as the subject-matter. Sometimes drill is necessary to fix facts; again it is necessary to encourage the observation and study of persons, things and events about us; a third time, wide research and extensive reading are demanded; again, the feelings must be aroused, sentiment and enthusiasm encouraged, patriotism taught.
There is material for many of these exercises in Journeys Through Bookland.
As a type of study for the military campaign, we might take Burgoyne’s campaign in the Revolution. From the textbook we may learn certain facts and encourage the pupils to group them as follows:
The preceding outline is the framework for the study of one military campaign. In a school it would be the basis for topical recitations, but in itself it has neither interest nor vitality. The main points should be memorized so that facts learned subsequently may be logically arranged. When the general outline is mastered, teachers and pupils begin to fill in details from all available sources and create in the minds of the pupils vivid pictures of the scenes, a thorough understanding of the course of events, and a lively realization of the effect of this remarkable episode of a great war. At home it may be used in a similar manner.
To further assist in this instance and to furnish a type or model for succeeding studies, we will traverse the outline again, showing what may be done with it and how literature may lend its aid to the study of history. In Journeys Through Bookland we have a long extract from The Battle of Saratoga by Creasy (Volume IX, page 176). This will be the source of much of our information, and there are explanatory footnotes of considerable value. We reproduce here only the indices of the original outline:
1. a, b and c. A good outline map of the colonies is necessary. It must show the location of bodies of water, natural thoroughfares, cities and forts. The map should be made for the purpose and contain no details beyond those necessary for an understanding of this campaign. A second map showing a strip of country from the Saint Lawrence to New York and wide enough to include all the operations of the armies should contain more detail and be used frequently as the study proceeds. It may be well for each child to draw this region in outline and fill in the details as his study proceeds. Read page 177, Volume IX.
2. a, b, c and d. Read pages 180-182, Volume IX.
3. a and b. Pages 182-183, Volume IX.
4. a and b. Pages 181-182, Volume IX. The quotation from Burke, Volume IX, pages 183 and 184, and the following paragraph are interesting accounts of the feeling in England and America over the apparent successes of Burgoyne.
c. The causes of the increased efficiency of the Americans and the bitterness with which the British were regarded by the colonists is explained on pages 184 and 185 of Volume IX.
Something of the nature of the Indian allies may be gained from the story, An Exciting Canoe Race (Volume VII, page 79).
A stirring poem, to be read in this connection, is The Old Continentals (Volume VII, page 175).
5. a, b, c and d. The final days of the campaign and the surrender are described on pages 193-200, Volume IX. In using this, bring out the following points not made in the original outline:
The near approach of Clinton and the message from him. What must Burgoyne have felt when he received the message! Put human interest into the tale.