I. The Body was called Khat. This was embalmed and then placed in the tomb.
II. The Soul was called, Ba or Bai, plur. Baiu. This was the part of the spiritual which was thought to contain the elements necessary for the world-life of a man, such as judgment, conscience, etc. It seems to be the same termed psuke or psyche by the Greeks. This Ba performed the pilgrimage in the underworld, and was judged for the conduct of the man it inhabited in this world, by Osiris and the Forty-two judges. It was usually represented as a bird, especially as a human-headed sparrow-hawk. It fluttered to and fro between this world and the next, sometimes visiting the mummy in its tomb. It was sometimes represented as a crane, at others as a lapwing. It is paralleled by the Rua'h of the Hebrew Qabbalah.
III. The Intellectual part of man's spirit was called, Xu or Khu. It was considered as part of the flame detached from the upper divine fire. Freed from mortality it wandered through space and had the power of keeping company with or haunting humanity, and even of entering into and taking possession of the body of a living man. The Egyptians spoke of being possessed with a khu as we would say of a being possessed by a spirit.[106] It was considered as a luminous spirit. It was the Intelligence and answers to the Nous of the Greeks and the Neshamah of the Hebrew Qabbalah.
IV. The Shadow or Shade was called, Khaibit. This created the Individuality, and was an important part of the personality. There was a valley in which the Shades were, in the Underworld. It was restored to the soul in the second life. They are frequently mentioned in the Per-em-hru. His shadow, would early attract the attention of the primitive man.
V. The Name was called, Ren. This was the Personality, that something, which continued to know itself as a distinct individual, through every change of the atoms and appearances of the body. In the Per-em-hru was written: "The Osiris (then the name of the dead was inserted.)" It was restored eternally to the soul in the second life. The Ba retained the Ren in its journey through the Underworld.
VI. The life or Double was called, Ka, plur. Kau. This was the vital principle, necessary to the existence of man as an animal being on this earth. It was a spiritual double, a second perfect exemplar or copy, of his flesh, blood, etc., body; but of a matter less dense than corporeal matter, but having all its shape and features, being child, man, or woman, as the living had been. It dwelt with the mummy in the tomb and had a semi-material form and substance, and I am inclined to think, from the texts, it had power to leave the tomb when it pleased but always returned. Its emblem was the ankh or crux ansata. It was something like the higher Nephesh of the Hebrew Qabbalah. The sacrificial food left in the tombs and the pictures on their walls were for the benefit of the Ka. The Ka corresponded to the Latin, genius. Its original meaning may have been image;[107] it was like the Greek eidolon, i.e., ghost. The funeral oblations were made to the image or Ka. The Ka was a spiritual double of the man, a kind of prototype in the Upper World, of the man in the Lower World, our earth.[108]
VII. The Mummy or the Husk was called, Sahu. It was the body after embalmment. "His body is in the condition of being true; it will not perish."[109] The Sahu was considered a true being as it was assumed that it would always remain the same. It was like the lower form of the Nephesh of the Hebrew Qabbalah. The atoms of the mummy-body were still intact held together by the cohesion of the particles. This cohesion was looked upon as a spiritual energy keeping the particles together, in the form of the mummy. The word Sahu may sometimes refer to this living personality.
VIII. The Heart was called Ab. This was thought to be the seat of life, the life being in the blood, and the embryonic life starting with the pulsations of the heart. See, Appendix A.
The Ba, performed the journey through the Underworld accompanied by the Name and Shadow, until it reached the Hall of Judgment; if pronounced pure, the Heart was then given it. The Name, Shadow and Heart, then awaited reunion with the Khu and Ka for the condition of final immortality and the power to make the transformations. The body was embalmed and the Ka dwelt in the sepulchre with it, but went in and out of the tomb. The Khu also accompanied the Ba in its journey through the Underworld and assisted it, but in case of an adverse judgment in the Hall of Osiris and the decree of annihilation; the Khu fled back to its immortal source of life and light.
Not any of these, by its own nature, could exist for any length of time entirely separated from the others; if left to itself, that so separated, would in time dissolve into new elements and if it were the soul, it would die a second time, the personality and individuality would then perish and become annihilated; this was the much feared, second death. This however might be prevented by the piety of the survivors, in repeating the prayers and litanies and performing the lustrations and sacrifices, for the dead. The lot to do this usually fell to the eldest son and in default of sons, to the daughters, etc., no relations existing, the dead persons' slaves could perform it. The priests were also left annuities to perform perpetually, the sacred duties to the dead. Embalmment preventing for centuries, decomposition; continued prayers, devotions and offerings would save, it was believed, the Ka, the Ba, and the Khu, from the second death, and procure for them what was necessary to prolong their existence. The Ka, they thought, never quitted the place where the mummy was except at some time to return. The Ba, and the Khu went away from it to follow the gods, but they continually returned as would a traveler who re-entered his house after an absence. The tomb was the defunct's "eternal dwelling house" on earth, the houses of the living were only as inns or stopping places. In case of a judgment in favor of the Ba in the Hall of Osiris, the Khu united to the Ba, Khaibet, Ab, Ka, etc., rose up to the Egyptian heaven, and the whole united was able to make whatever transformations pleased it.
[77] Comp. Hist. of the Egypt. Relig., by Dr. C.P. Tiele. London, 1892, pp. 89, 127, 139.
[78] Most likely the Egyptian idea was "to emanate" more than "to create."
[79] Louis Ménard's edition. Paris, 1867, p. 89.
[80] Book II., ch. 123.
[81] Hist. of the Egypt. Relig., by C.P. Tiele, pp. 47, 71.
[82] Comp. Hist, of the Egypt. Relig., by C.P. Tiele. London, 1890, p. 127. The Book of the Dead. Fac-simile of the Papyrus of Ani, etc., notes by P. Le Page Renouf. London, 1890, p. 16, note. See also supra reference to the Mesxen. A similar idea is in the Zohar, compare Qabbalah, etc., by Isaac Myer. Philadelphia, 1888, pp. 397, 388, 389, 108 et seq., 190, 196, 418, and many other places.
[83] Hymne à Ammon-Ra des papyrus Égyptiens du Musée de Boulaq, traduit et commenté, by Eugène Grébaut, etc. Paris, 1874, p. 11.
[84] Ibid., p. 28. See also, pp. 115, 120-122, 295.
[85] Ibid., pp. 112, 115.
[86] As to the meaning of the important word maat, see, Religion of Ancient Egypt, by P. Le Page Renouf—Hibbert Lectures for 1879. New York, pp. 73 et seq.; 123 et seq. Hymne à Ammon-Ra, last before cited, notes p. 110 et seq.
[87] Hymne à Ammon-Ra, p. 16 et seq.
[88] Ibid., pp. 27, 28.
[89] Comp. Hymne à Ammon-Ra, by E. Grébaut, pp. 3, 4, and notes to same, p. 39 et seq.
[90] Or, "the changing which is in the changing of all things when they change."
[91] That is: "Lords of maat," i.e., of the harmony of the universe.
[92] Place of the soul's birth. This refers to the upper prototypic world. The same idea is in the Zohar.
[93] Catalogue des Manuscrits Égyptiens, etc., au Musée Égypt. du Louvre, par Feu Théodule Devéria. Paris, 1881, No. 3283; pp. 143, 144. Comp. Hermès Trismégiste, par Louis Ménard, second ed. Paris, 1867, pp. 188, 190, 117 et seq.; 147.
[94] Hermès Trismégiste, edition last cited, p. 218.
[95] By the Word or Logos. The Logos occupied an important position in the Ancient Egyptian religion. See my Article on the subject in, The Oriental Review, January-February, 1893, p. 20 et seq.
[96] Shu corresponds to the Makrokosm, the primordial Adam or androgenic Adam Qadmon, of the first chapter of the Hebrew Book of Genesis. As to Shu, see: History of the Egypt. Relig., by Dr. C.P. Tiele. Boston, 1882, pp. 84, 85, 155, 156.
[97] The Hebrew She-kheen-ah, or Glory?
[98] The Nile. Notes for Travellers in Egypt, by E.A. Wallis Budge, Litt. D., F.S.A., etc., second ed. London, 1892, p. 165 et seq.
[99] Inscriptions in the pyramid of Pepi I., l. 664 (circa 3233-3200 B.C.,) in the Recueil de Travaux Relatifs à la Philol., et à l'Arch. Égypt., etc., Vol. VIII., p. 104.
[100] Comp. The Per-em-hru or, Book of the Dead, edition of Ed. Naville, ch. XVII., l. 3, 4. In the passage cited from Pepi, I. 664 et seq., Tumu is also a primordial deity and its female sakti or principle, is Nu or Nut, the sky.
[101] It is from this action that the deity was named Shu from the root, Shu to lift up, to raise. Later, through a pun, he obtained the meaning of Luminous. Comp. also Naville's ed. of the Per-em-hru last cited, l. 4 et seq.
[102] G. Maspero in the Revue de l'Hist. des Religions. Le Livre des Morts, Vol. XV., pp. 269, 270.
[103] Hermès Trismégistos, second ed., by Louis Ménard. Paris, 1867. pp. 27, 28. Hermetis Trismegisti Poemander; ad fidem codicum manu scriptorum recognovit, by Gustavus Parthey. Berolini, 1854, p. 31. The word "sand" is used to symbolize the positive or atomic dryness, and "damp sand," the atomic humidity, or the negative.
[104] Book of the Dead, ch. XVII., l. 1-4; XV., l. 28, 29, 43, 47; LXXIX., l. 1, 2; LXXVIII., l. 12. Hymne à Ammon-Ra, by Eugène Grébaut. Paris, 1874, pp. 11, 28, 112, 115, 120-122, 295.
[105] Paul Pierret, Études Égyptol., I., 81.
[106] F. Chabas, l'Égyptologie. Paris, 1878, Vol. II., p. 103.
[107] Comp. Trans. Soc. Biblical Literature, Vol. VI., pp. 494-508.
[108] Comp. Religion of Ancient Egypt by P. Le Page Renouf, p. 153 et seq.
[109] Mythe d' Horus, by E. Naville.
FORGERY OF SCARABS IN MODERN TIMES. DIFFICULTY OF DETECTING SUCH. OTHER EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES ALSO COUNTERFEITED BY THE PRESENT INHABITANTS OF EGYPT.
M. Prisse says:[110] "Most of the fellahs who inhabit the land, formerly Memphis and Thebes, live only from the products of their finds. Constrained to cease from their lucrative researches, they are reduced to the counterfeiting of figurines, amulets and the other objects of art which they formerly found in the earth. Necessity the mother of industry has caused them in a short time to make wonderful progress. Without any practice in the arts, and with the rudest tools, some of the peasants have carved scarabs and beautiful statuettes and ornamented them with hieroglyphic legends. They very well know that cartouches add much value to the antiquities, and they are never in want of copies of them either from the great monuments or the original scarabs. They use in making the copies a limestone of fine and compact grain, soapstone, serpentine and alabaster. The objects made of limestone are daubed with bitumen taken from the mummies, or from the colors taken away from the paintings in the hypogea, finally some are covered uniformly with a brilliant pottery glaze which renders, it is true, the forms rather blurred and not easy to see, but which resembles in a surprising manner, antiquities which the action of fire or of earth, impregnated with saltpetre, have slightly damaged. The feigned hieroglyphs therein are mistaken for those as to which the work has been neglected. Their statuettes recall the figurines of poor ware, which the Ancient Egyptians placed in so great a number in their tombs. In spite of their imperfections, the fellahs have been perfectly successful in deceiving most of the travelers, generally grossly ignorant of antiquities. Hard stones, such as basalt, green jasper, burnt serpentine, green feldspar, chalcedony, cornelian, etc., upon which the rude tools of the fellahs would not have worked, would have become, for the amateurs in antiquities, the only pieces of authentic origin; but the Jews of Cairo, also as rapacious and more able than the Arabs, have engraved with the wheel, scarabs and amulets denuded of legends; and finally have entirely counterfeited them, so that all these little objects are now very much suspected, and their appreciation to-day, demands understanding of the text much more than knowledge of Egyptian art.
Not only the tourists, the people of leisure from Europe, who bring back from all the classic lands some antiquities, in place of observation and study, which are not sold; purchase these falsified antiquities, but also people who pride themselves upon having a knowledge of archæology, often buy them. Most of the collections of the Museums of Europe contain, more or less, objects fabricated in our day in Egypt. 'Luxor' says M. Mariette, 'is a centre for fabrications in which scarabs, statuettes and even steles, are imitated with an address which often leads astray the most instructed antiquary.'"
Mr. Henry A. Rhind[111] writing in 1862 says: "There is now at Thebes an arch-forger of scarabæi—a certain Ali Gamooni, whose endeavors, in the manufacture of these much sought after relics, have been crowned with the greatest success. * * Scarabæi of elegant and well finished descriptions, are not beyond the range of this curious counterfeiter. These he makes of the same material as the ancients used—a close-grained, easily cut limestone—which, after it is cut into shape and lettered, receives a greenish glaze by being baked on a shovel with brass filings. Ali not content with closely imitating, has even aspired to the creative; so antiquarians must be on their guard lest they waste their time and learning, on antiquities of a very modern date."[112]
[110] Collections d'Antiquités Égypt. au Caire, p. 1 et seq.
[111] Thebes; its Tombs and their Tenants, ancient and modern. London, 1862.
[112] Ibid., pp. 253-255. Comp. Gliddon, Indigenous Races, p. 192 note.
PHŒNICIAN SCARABS. MANUFACTURED MOSTLY AS ARTICLE OF TRADE. USED INSCRIBED SCARABS AS SEALS IN COMMERCIAL AND OTHER TRANSACTIONS. MANY SCARABS FOUND IN SARDINIA.
Archæologists frequently find in lands bordering on the shores of the Mediterranean sea, scarabs and scarabeoids, on which are engraved subjects which are Egyptian, Chaldean, Assyrian, Hittite or Persian; they were intended apparently to be used as signets, and were incised with short inscriptions in Phœnician, and sometimes, in Aramaic or in Hebrew, giving the name of the owner of the signet.
These had been mostly manufactured in their entirety, as articles of trade, for sale by the ancient merchants of Tyre and Sidon, or they were Egyptian, Assyrian or other originals upon which, Phœnician lapidaries had engraved the name of the later Phœnician owner. In spite of not being an artistic people producing works of originality, this people, the great mariners and merchants of antiquity, had in an eminent degree the genius of assimilation or adaptation, and manufactured cylinders, cones, spheroids, scarabs and signets of all kinds, at first for themselves, and afterwards as an article of sale to the people with whom they traded.
They also used seals in their commercial and maritime transactions, which they surrounded with the same formalities which we find in Assyria, Babylonia and Chaldea. When they dealt with these last mentioned peoples, the Phœnicians came into contact with nations, whose most unimportant transactions were put into writing by a scribe, and sealed in the presence of witnesses, with the seal of the contracting parties. They therefore in dealing with these people were obliged to have and use signets.[113][114] Such contracts have been found dating between 745-729 B.C.
In the island of Sardinia have been found numerous intaglios under the form of scarabs, they were apparently used as signets. The under parts are incised with Egyptian, Assyro-Chaldean or Persian subjects. In the necropolis of Tharros, an early Phœnician colony situated near the present Torre di San Giovanni di Sinis, have been found more than 600 scarabs ornamented with Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian subjects;[115] and one might believe a colony which came from Egypt or Assyria settled there. These scarabs are usually cut in dark green jasper, some are made of cornelian, others of a glass-paste, rarely in amethyst or sardonyx. The work is variable sometimes carefully done, but none of the scarabs have the clearness of those found in Egypt, nor of the Assyro-Chaldean of Asia. Most of these scarabs, which are always made in nearly the same form, were mounted, some in gold and others in silver; also sometimes in other metals which the corrosions from age had already caused to disappear when they were found.
These intaglios can be divided from the nature of the subjects into three varieties. The first those imitating the Egyptian; the second, the Assyro-Chaldean; and the third, the Persian. All these scarabs are of Phœnician manufacture, but they were probably made in Sardinia, as the remains of the workshops and materials used in making them, have been found there. They do not go back of 500 B.C. The Phœnicians in their colonies, showed no more originality in their work than they did in the mother country, and have been only the intermediary agents between the civilization of the Orient and that of the Occident. This people even counterfeited Egyptian manufactures and antiquities in order to sell them, and the borrowings in their own religion show, they were governed more by the gains of trade than the desires or depths of piety. There are a number in the Cesnola collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.
There is a magnificent scarab in green jasper in the British Museum, but where it was produced is not known. It appears to be from the chisel of an Egyptian artist. The base however has been engraved by another; its subject is clearly Assyrian, in the style of work done with the drill, by the artists of Calah. In the field of the signet is a symbol unknown to Assyria or Egypt, below this is evidently the Egyptian ankh or crux ansata and below this is the inscription: "(Signet) of Hodo, the Scribe." This a beautiful specimen of the intelligent work of the Phœnicians.
[113] Such contracts written on terra cotta, have been found sealed with impressions of the finger nails on the margin of the terra cotta before it was baked; others have had something as to the act done, referred to on the margins, written in Phœnician letters. There has been found an example of this as early as 783 B.C.
[114] Menant. Les Pierres Gravées de la Haute-Asie, p. 211 et seq.
[115] Crespi, Catalogo, p. 138, No. 1.
ETRUSCAN SCARABS. ORIGIN OF AND WHERE FOUND. COPIED FROM EGYPTIAN BUT WITH CHANGES IN SUBJECTS, SIZE AND ORNAMENTATION. THE ENGRAVING OF. WHERE USUALLY FOUND. USES BY THE ETRUSCANS. GREEK AND ROMAN SCARABS. GNOSTIC, OF THE BASILIDIANS.
The archaic people of ancient Etruria did not make cameos, their gems were intaglios and were incised on the under side, on forms shaped in the model of the scarabæus or beetle. The use of the form therefore was most likely derived from those used in the valley of the Nile. The Etruscan scarabs were however not correct representations; they were conventional and exaggerated resemblances of the insect.
The Etruscan scarabæus is found in different parts of Italy, quite frequently at Chiusi, in Tuscany, which was formerly ancient Etruria; from whence, the name Etruscan for those found in this part of Italy, has been derived.
They were usually manufactured of common red sard, such as is now often met with in the beds of Italian torrents, but Etruscan scarabs have also been found made of sardonyx, cornelian, onyx and agate, also, but rarely, of chalcedony.
The ancient inhabitants of Italy followed the Egyptian form in making the representation except, that the back and the wing cases of the scarab are set much higher than the Egyptian, and there is usually a raised ridge running along the junction, also the legs are cut out on the side, and a slight difference exists in the ornamentation and engraving of the wing cases. The stones have been rubbed into shape apparently by corundum. Few exceed an inch, and most are not over half an inch in length, whereas the Egyptian were from the size of our ordinary house fly to those a number of feet across. The material of the Etruscan is also always semi-transparent, except those burned which has made the sard opaque. The flat side or base was engraved with intaglio. This engraving though in early examples rude and done with the drill, was in later times, improved by the use of the wheel, diamond dust and the diamond point, and by the polishing of both the surface and the incised parts, and also, by the addition, both at the sides and around the engraved base, of an ornamental border of small strokes following each other closely, resembling in some specimens, the milling of a coin; in others, it is like a widely linked chain or string of beads, or a loosely twisted cable, and in others like the ornamentation known as "egg moulding."
In Egyptian scarabs the flat or under part of the stone, which is the side engraved in intaglio, has representations of deities or hieroglyphs; in the Etruscan, the subjects engraved in intaglio on the base, are representations of animals, wild or domestic, or are those derived from Egyptian, Assyrian or Babylonian sources, and after acquaintance with the Greeks, subjects derived from early Greek myths, especially the deeds of Herakles and of the heroes of the Trojan War, of those of Thebes and the sports of the Palæstra.
Sometimes the name of the subject was engraved on one side of it, and occasionally the wearer's name or a word of mystic meaning, rarely symbols or figures of the Etruscan gods or chimæras. The engraving is of great service to the historian and student of the glyptic art, as the subjects show the transition from Assyrian, Egyptian, and Persian forms and figures, to the archaic Greek and the best period of stone engraving.
Many of the Etruscan examples have been found at Præneste, the modern Palestrina, and in the necropolis of Clusium; some of those found there, have engraved on the base the lotus flower with four-winged figures of archaic Etruscan form, the kynokephallos ape, the sacred asp or uræus of Egypt, the winged sun of Thebes and the bull Apis; on others are figures copied from Assyrian originals; on others are Herakles fighting the lion, Herakles stealing the tripod of Apollo and discovered by the latter; Ajax and Cassandra, a Harpy, etc. Some of these have been found in tombs and other places with the color changed to an opaque white by the action of fire. These have been burned with the body of their owner when he was cremated.
The Etruscans have evidently borrowed the form without caring for the cult; there does not appear with them any mysterious, religious or astronomical meaning, nor the veneration for it, which existed among the old Egyptians; but no doubt, the representation was considered as a talisman or preservative amulet and was worn as such, but in many instances likely, only as a matter of ornament in dress.
They were pierced like those of Egypt longitudinally, and one method of wearing them, was, by stringing them, intermingled with beads, as a necklace, but they were also worn as a signet stone in a ring with a swivel, so they could be turned and the incised part used as a seal by the owner.
I think it likely that the Etruscans at first, purchased the scarabs from the Phœnician traders whose merchant ships, as I have said in the preceding chapter, trafficked in ornaments and jewelry at an early period, and who likely, at first, may have brought some from Egypt and afterwards manufactured scarabs as an article of barter.
There is one peculiarity to be noted in the glyptography of the Etruscans, the absence of a transitional period between the extremely rude designs of the early style, made almost entirely by the use of the drill, and the intaglios of the most beautiful finish in low relief. Mr. King, in his work on Antique Gems, says: "While the first class offers caricatures of men and animals, the favorite subjects being figures throwing the discus, fawns with amphora, cows with sucking calves, or the latter alone, the second gives us subjects from the Greek mythology, especially scenes from Homer and the tragedians, among which, the stories of Philoctetes and Bellerophon occur with remarkable frequency." I think the rudely made are likely of Etruscan or Phœnician manufacture, the finely executed of Greek.
The inscriptions on Etruscan stones are nearly always the names of the persons represented on them. There are but few exceptions to this. We may therefore divide Etruscan glyptography into:
I. Etruscan scarabs, with Etruscan or Assyrian subjects.
II. Etruscan scarabs, with archaic Greek subjects.
There are many more of the latter than the former. The Greek subjects most frequently met with, refer to actions by Herakles, Perseus, Tydeus, Theseus, Peleus, Ulysses, Achilles and Ajax.
The time of manufacture and use by the Etruscans was most probably before the IIIrd century B.C., at which time, Etruria was conquered by the Romans, its manufactures destroyed and its artists taken to Rome.
The Greeks borrowed the form from the Egyptians, but improved on the engraving, which they made more natural and artistic; finally they suppressed the insect but preserved the oval form of the base. The Romans also adopted, it may be surmised from the Etruscans, the scarab signet and retained its form until the later days of the Republic. Winckelmann, says: Those with the figures or heads of Serapis or Anubis incised upon them are of this period.[116] I think it likely, that those with this deity upon them may go back to the period of the Ptolemys.
At the end of the Ist or beginning of the IInd century A.D., arose the gnostic Egyptian sect called the Basilidians. They introduced an amulet or talisman. It was made oval in the form of the base of the Egyptian scarab. Such talisman were usually made of black Egyptian basalt, sometimes of sard or other hard stones. Upon them were engraved mysterious hieroglyphs and figures, called Abraxas, and they are known as Abraxoides. Among the figures engraved was frequently that of the scarabæus. Montfaucon has given a number of them in his Antiquities.[117] Chifflet has also given several.[118]
[116] Winckelmann, Art. 2, c. 1.
[117] Vol. II., part 2, p. 339. Ed. of Paris.
[118] Comp. Fosbrooke Encyc. of Antiq. London, 1825, part I., p. 208.
The heart of man was considered to be the source from whence proceeded, not only the beginnings of life but also the beginnings of thought. It was symbolized by the scarab. Examples of the heart have been found, some with a representation of the human head at the top of them, and of human hands crossed over them; and others, having a figure of the soul in the shape of a hawk with outstretched wings, incised on one side of the model.
Since the foregoing chapters were put in type, which were based on the Book of the Dead as published by M. Paul Pierret in a French translation, from the Turin papyrus and the papyri in the Louvre, as mentioned in my Introduction; the Translation and Commentary of "The Egyptian Book of the Dead" by P. Le Page Renouf, Esq.,[A] Parts I. and II., have appeared.
Mr. Renouf's translation is based on Das Ægyptische Todtenbuch der XVIII. bis XX. Dynastie by M. Edouard Naville,[B] and is from papyri of the Theban Dynasties and from a very much older period than that of the Turin papyrus.
The chapters so far given in Mr. Renouf's translation which relate to the heart, are the 26th, 27th, 28th, 29A, 29B, 30A, and 30B. They are as follows: