[3.4] Porque me haya usted oído 'Because you may have heard me.' Porque does not influence the mood of haya; the subjunctive is governed by an idea of possibility not expressed, but which might be indicated by es posible or by se puede.
[3.5] una. An indefinite subject, indicated in English by 'one,' 'we,' 'you,' 'they,' 'people,' etc., is usually expressed in Spanish by the reflexive. The pronoun uno or una may, however, replace se and it tends to make the subject less vague.
[3.6] Tratándose de usted 'When you are concerned.' Participial constructions (whether the participle be present or past) are frequently best translated by dependent clauses.
[3.7] al pasar 'in passing,' 'when you pass.' The common use of al with the infinitive, where English has a dependent clause or the present participle governed usually by 'in,' 'on,' 'upon,' 'while,' etc.
[4.1] hombre. A common form of emphatic address, sometimes to be translated and sometimes to be omitted according to the English context; mujer is similarly employed.
[4.2] Ya supondrás 'Of course you must suppose' (or 'imagine'). The future tense denoting probability is especially prominent in conversation and therefore in the drama, and must be watched closely. It may be translated by 'must' or 'can,' or by such words as 'probably,' 'quite,' 'of course.' Ya frequently accompanies it.
[4.3] nuestro corazón. When reference is made to a part of the body common to two or more individuals of a group, or to an object possessed by each one of them, Spanish, unlike English, generally employs a singular noun.
[4.4] de... a. Correlative prepositions equivalent to 'between... and.'
[4.5] hemos de 'should.' Perhaps no Spanish locution assumes so many shades of meaning as haber de. It may be rendered by any of the large number of English words and phrases that denote a mild obligation. When it occurs in this text, the list of meanings in the vocabulary should be consulted and the most appropriate one chosen. Moreover, the reader has ample opportunity, in particular cases, to improve upon any given list of meanings.
[5.2] es hora de que 'it is time that.' Many verbs, adjectives, and nouns require a preposition before an infinitive in Spanish and in English. Thus, es hora de comer means 'it is time to eat.' But whereas in English this preposition is omitted before a dependent clause introduced by 'that,' in Spanish it is usually retained.
[5.3] Real (el). A theater in Madrid on the Plaza de Oriente near the Royal Palace; it is subsidized by the government and is devoted to opera.
[5.4] Lo que es 'As for.' A peculiar use of lo que with ser, to be distinguished from its ordinary meanings and from its meanings in exclamations.
[5.5] tercer turno. A term designating one of the sections of season ticket holders at the Teatro Real. One group holds tickets of primer turno, another of segundo turno, and a third of tercer turno. Each group attends only the performances belonging to its turn or section. The terms do not give much satisfaction if translated literally.
[5.6] no le importaría 'he wouldn't mind.' Impersonal verbs occur much more frequently in Spanish than in English, and it is often wise, in translating, to change to the personal construction (cf. translation of tratándose, [3.6]). However, the impersonal form may well be retained, if appropriate. In this book consideration is to be given to such verbs as antojarse, bastar, constar, convenir, gustar, importar, pasar, pesar, placer, sentar, sobrar, suceder, tardarse, tratarse, etc. The vocabulary suggests various translations.
[5.7] desde muy niña 'since you were very young.' Here muy is correct because, in this context, niña is virtually an adjective; cf. muy hombre, muy maestro, and the English 'very much a man.'
[6.1] ¡Ay, si lo sé! 'Indeed I do know it,' 'Of course I know it.' It is not unusual to find si after interjections; cf. ¡vaya si lo sé! Here si, meaning 'whether,' may be regarded as grammatically dependent upon some verb of asking understood.
[6.2] no estás para 'you are not in a position to.' The idiom here has a different meaning from the usual 'be about to.'
[6.3] que. Here elliptical and emphatic; que often occurs at the beginning of a clause, and serves to call attention to what follows, thereby intensifying the statement; such a que cannot be translated. To understand it we may supply some such word as parece, hay, sucede, etc.
[6.4] nosotros. Note the emphatic position of this word, stressed by the insertion of se puede decir que.
[6.7] enamoradilla 'slightly in love.' The exact force of certain Spanish augmentatives and diminutives cannot readily be given in English. An effort has been made in the vocabulary to suggest suitable translations wherever a fair degree of accuracy seems attainable.
[6.8] no se diga 'there's no denying it,' 'there's no use talking.' Decir is used in several exclamatory or semi-exclamatory expressions where a different verb would often be employed in English. Attention will be called to other examples.
[7.1] Fulanito... Menganito. Fulano regularly corresponds to So-and-So, John Doe, etc. If a second name is desired, Mengano or Zutano is used. The diminutive can scarcely be translated.
[7.2] cómo se va avispando 'how clever he is getting.' In progressive tenses, ir emphasizes, more strongly than estar, continuity of action.
[7.3] tonterías. Contrary to English usage, abstract nouns are often put in the plural. Translations of such forms are suggested in various ways in the vocabulary.
[7.4] ¿Qué iba yo a cambiar...? 'What was I going to change in a saint [if I married one]?' i.e. 'What could I change?' The conditional of poder would be an obvious conventional form, but the imperfect indicative and the verb ir add strength to the question; cf. the English 'What are you going to do about it?'
[7.5] de gran espectáculo, con mutaciones. Pepe borrows from theatrical language to describe vividly the kind of husband for whom Luisa professes admiration.
[7.7] Si yo no tengo secretos 'Why, I haven't any secrets.' Si is often to be translated by 'why,' 'well,' or 'of course,' expressive of surprise or expostulation. A clause is suppressed for brevity. The full form would be something like this—Si yo no tengo secretos... ¿cómo quieres que te lo diga?
[7.8] formal. Used by Luisa to mean 'real,' 'genuine'; Pepe pretends to take it in its sense of 'serious' or 'sensible.'
[8.1] pareció. According to strict rule, the preterit tense may indicate any definite past action, even if it took place only a moment ago. However, for actions so recent that they almost touch the present, the perfect (e.g. ha parecido) is the common tense. The preterit, when sparingly and skilfully applied, adds variety and vigor to the phrase. It is especially preferred in describing something inevitable. The English translation requires the perfect (e.g. 'has appeared') or (occasionally) even the present.
[8.2] quieras que no 'whether you like it or not.' The full form is que quieras o que no quieras; que quieras que no and quieras o no quieras are also found. Ramsey, § 940, says: "The alternative expressions made by the subjunctive used independently may be regarded as modifications of the imperative, in which the thing commanded is so indeterminate that they are mere general permissions." See also, §§ 941, 942.
[8.4] la tienes. A frequent conversational substitute for estar, which here would give está cantando.
[9.1] podía. The imperfect indicative sometimes replaces the conditional or the -ra form of the imperfect subjunctive in the conclusion of a conditional sentence contrary to fact. Cf. Bello-Cuervo, § 695: "This use of the imperfect indicative does not occur often; but when properly used it is emphatic and elegant." See [7.4].
[9.2] quien. Note the singular form with a plural antecedent, still found occasionally; quien (from the Latin quem) had no plural until the sixteenth century; see Menéndez Pidal, Gramática histórica española, § 101.
[9.3] que todo se quede en casa 'that it should all remain a family matter.'
[10.2] Sí. The affirmative adverb sí is much used to intensify statements, or to repeat the idea contained in a preceding statement. It is equivalent to 'indeed,' 'surely,' 'of course,' etc., or to the English auxiliary verbs used in repetitions; for instance in "I have not gone to town but he has," the verb 'has' may be rendered by sí.
[10.3] en lo único que 'the only thing in which.' The word order, although not strictly logical, is correct and even elegant. In expressions containing lo que, prepositions which logically govern que are often placed before lo.
[11.1] serían. Following me atrevo, present, we should expect serán, but serían exemplifies the occasional inaccuracy of everyday speech. Luisa is narrating past happenings, and is therefore influenced by the standpoint of the past.
[11.2] está. Supply diciendo.
[11.4] cariñosa. A predicate adjective modifying the subject; English uses an adverb modifying the verb.
[11.5] que en qué cosas me fijo. This que, not translatable, is required to connect dirás with the following indirect question, and very often joins decir to succeeding words or statements; cf. decir que sí etc.
[12.1] por complacer. Before an infinitive por ordinarily expresses cause or reason; when substituted for para to indicate purpose, as here, it implies that the attainment of the object is uncertain; por que is sometimes similarly used instead of para que.
[12.3] nunca lo hubiera habido 'there never would have been any.' Lo refers to a preceding word, phrase, or idea (in this case to desaire), and is translated (if at all) by 'one,' 'some,' 'any,' or 'so.' Hubiera habido is the pluperfect subjunctive of haber in the impersonal sense.
[12.5] pero. Used to reinforce the repetition; cf. mais in French, and the occasional use in English of the word 'and,' which is not unsuitable here.
[14.1] ¿A qué ha venido? 'For what has he come?' 'Why has he come?' This use of a is parallel to its use before an infinitive after venir and other intransitive verbs of motion. In this case a expresses purpose.
[15.1] se. Ethical dative, best omitted in translation; analysis shows that the pronoun contains an idea of advantage, or at least of reference, to the subject.
[15.2] del botarate de su hijo 'of his madcap of a son.' In Spanish, as in English, the preposition merely denotes that what follows is appositive. There is no change of identity. In Spanish, this construction is more comprehensive than in English: el bueno de Juan. Note la ciudad de Madrid 'the city of Madrid.'
[15.3] todo lo. When todo precedes a verb of which it is the object, lo also must be used. When todo follows the verb, lo may be used, but is not required. See note [10.1].
DE PEQUEÑAS CAUSAS
De pequeñas causas... illustrates Benavente's satirical vein. It seems to have been written chiefly to amuse; but the plot amply allows for character study. The pettiness of the reason that finally induces Manuel to remain in the ministry reminds the listener or reader of the author's delight in details and in ironical situations. The Teatro de la Princesa, where the comedy was first performed, is on the Calle de Tamayo near the Paseo de Recoletos in Madrid. This theater is devoted to the production of high-class comedy. Contemporary press reports state that De pequeñas causas... was well received. The implication in the title is that from small causes proceed great results.
[19.1] está. Supply en casa.
[19.3] Nada. Incomplete in itself; here we might translate: 'Don't say anything,' 'There's no use talking,' 'Not a word.'
[19.4] guste. The personal use of gustar; see vocabulary.
[20.1] señor... señor. The first señor refers to Manuel, and illustrates a conventional way in which servants address their masters; the second refers to González. On the stage the servant would make his reference clear by gestures.
[21.1] cuenta usted con 'you have at your disposal.' The idiom contar con assumes many shades of meaning that are developed from the literal meaning 'count with' or 'reckon with.' When contar con occurs in this book, the list of translations in the vocabulary should be consulted, and the most suitable one chosen.
[21.2] ¿a qué? The personal a is used for clearness and emphasis. Cf. Ramsey, § 1318: "Verbs of naming, calling, considering, etc., may take two direct objects—the true object and the predicate or thing asserted. The true object takes the distinctive a."
[21.3] pasar por. Distinguish here between the two meanings 'pass through' (i.e. 'go through with,' 'put up with') and 'pass for' or 'be regarded as.' Here pasar por means 'put up with.'
[22.1] Me basto. Personal use of bastar; see vocabulary.
[22.2] Mire usted que 'Look out' or 'Bear in mind that.' Mirar sometimes assumes peculiar meanings in exclamatory or semi-exclamatory expressions; note the translation of que.
[23.1] hacer saber 'make known.' One of the most common formations in Spanish, and yet frequently hard to translate; hacer with the infinitive is variously rendered by 'make,' 'have,' 'get,' 'cause to,' or 'let' with the passive.
[24.1] el señor ministro. Before a title or before the name of a relative of the person addressed, señor should not be translated unless the use of 'Mr.' is natural, as in a few cases of direct address; cf. 'Mr. President,' 'Mr. Secretary.'
[24.2] Si acaso 'Well perhaps.' If a clause is supplied the meaning of this expression will be clear; we might say—'If by chance I read any, I read....'
[24.3] créditos extraordinarios. Several terms in this and the succeeding speech are borrowed by Emilia from financial and ministerial language; the effect is ironical.
[25.1] creación. A gallicism used in Spain as the word 'creation' is used in England or America in speaking, for instance, of a woman's gown or hat.
[25.2] el chic. A French word, used as a substantive and as an adjective both in French and in Spanish, which borrows the word.
[27.1] Que la acepten o no la acepten expresses an alternative: 'Whether... or not.' See note [8.2].
[27.2] pero sí 'but you have seen in me.' See note [10.2]. In this case sí takes the place of several words.
[28.1] diputado. After this word a few lines spoken by Emilia and Manuel are omitted; it is not believed that their absence obscures seriously the progress of the plot.
[28.2] mundo. Five words spoken by Manuel are omitted.
[28.3] Lo que ha de ser. An unfinished statement, easily completed by adding something to repeat the idea expressed by ha de ser. Cf. the English 'What is to be, must be.'
[29.1] ¡Que no tendrás ocasión! 'As if you won't have the chance.' Note the numerous possible translations of que.
[29.2] No es de baile 'It isn't meant for a ball.' Distinguish between ser de 'belong to' or 'be meant for' and ser de 'become of.'
[30.1] No me explico 'I don't understand.' The pronoun is indirect object.
[31.1] ¡Tendría que ver! A forcible idiomatic expression denoting scorn; the verb is in the third person; see vocabulary and cf. the English 'I'd like to see myself [doing such a thing]!'
[31.3] Sí que 'Of course,' 'As if.' Sometimes sí is connected by que with what follows; the statement is thereby emphasized.
[31.4] a los hombres os parece 'you men think.' When a noun is in apposition with a personal pronoun, it is regularly preceded by the article, because it is used in a general sense: 'to [all you] men.'
[32.1] Pepe. Being put before lo (instead of after deseando), Pepe seems to be left suspended; it is necessarily followed by a very slight pause and is to be stressed.
[32.2] No digas. Supply que no or nada. The idea is that the speaker rejects any contradiction or attempt at denial on the part of the interlocutor. 'Don't contradict me.' Cf. [6.8].
[32.3] la toman. The feminine of a pronoun is often used to indicate something indefinite. Some feminine noun may be understood to explain the gender; cosa is frequently suggested. Often we cannot know what noun (if any) is to be supplied. See vocabulary under tomar.
[33.1] donde... tenga. Equivalent to a relative clause (donde = en + relative pronoun) requiring the subjunctive because tener (tenga) expresses not reality but an ideal yet to be fulfilled.
[33.2] aguantaba. See note [9.1]. The sentence is ironical; cualquiera, therefore, has the implication of nobody.
[34.1] Y aun piden las mujeres que os concedan. An abrupt change, natural in conversation, from the third person to the second.
LOS INTERESES CREADOS
Hardly any of Benavente's plays has made a more favorable impression than Los intereses creados. Not only were the first performances enthusiastically received by the audiences, but they called forth highly flattering criticisms. Praise was showered upon the author for his simplicity and idealism, for the effective symbolism conveyed in the characters, and for purity, clearness, and poetry of style. (See the first note, on el tinglado de la antigua farsa, [39.2].) So great was the admiration that a banquet was given in honor of Benavente. The first performance of the play was in the Teatro Lara, situated on the Corredera Baja de San Pablo, considerably to the north of the Puerta del Sol; the Teatro Lara is devoted to comedy and especially to short productions.
Literally translated, the title is 'Created Interests'; in the course of the play Crispín explains the application of the term.
Los intereses creados is a product of enthusiasm. The author is glad for once to turn away from modern themes and to indulge in the freedom and gayety of the old Italian Comedy of Masks. The masterly prologue explains to perfection the frame of mind in which Benavente approaches the old farces, and it also shows wherein he differs from his models.
Attempts to classify this play with other works of Benavente are almost useless. It can be connected with its fellow productions only by virtue of fundamental qualities, such as clarity of style, irony, character study, etc. It would be stretching a point if we called attention to the nobility of Leandro's character and to the happy ending in order to insert the play among those that show a serious moral purpose. A more logical course would be to attribute Los intereses creados to Benavente's love of romance.
No explanatory or critical statements can rival the prologue. Whatever critics may decide to call it, the characters live and move, and offer amusement and food for thought to all classes of persons.
Admirers of Los intereses creados may receive a shock when they turn to the sequel, La ciudad alegre y confiada, in which a tone of pessimism prevails. Crispín has risen to be the ruler of the city that he had once entered as a servant, but in spite of his magnificence, his life is not as joyous as of old. Leandro is not happy as the son-in-law of Polichinela, nor even as the husband of Silvia. The protagonist of the piece is El Desterrado, a man once exiled by Crispín, but later permitted to return to the city. The play was greeted with enthusiasm, but it does not seem quite to reach the standard of its predecessor. The atmosphere is surcharged with impending disaster. In the prologue to Los intereses creados it is stated that the world has aged since the days of the old farces; we may go further and state that in La ciudad alegre y confiada the world of Los intereses creados has grown old.
Puppet performances go back to the Italian commedia dell'arte (Comedy of the Guild, Professional Comedy) which flourished especially in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. The Italian plays were for the most part mere scenarios; the speeches were improvised by the actors. This kind of performance was peculiarly suited to the histrionic ability of the Italians, and to their genius for gestures. The commedia dell'arte was received with favor in many countries of Europe, and its influence was felt by some of the greatest authors. The modern Punch and Judy show is its direct descendant.
The characters in these old comedies are mostly fixed types with fixed masks and costumes, and often fixed names, that occur, with additions, omissions, and variations, in all the plays. Some of them—notably the braggart soldier, the crafty servant, the lovers, the deceived parents, and the intermediary—are traced through the Renaissance to the comedies of Plautus and Terence and to the New Comedy of Athens, nearly all of which is lost. Others have a later origin. Benavente has achieved remarkable success in preserving the conventional traits of his figures, and at the same time in investing them with modern qualities. The more important masks in Los intereses creados are listed below, with very brief notes designed to point out the usual characteristics of each, and, where necessary, certain modifications introduced by Benavente. It must not be forgotten that each character is carefully delineated both from the old and from the modern point of view.
THE CHARACTERS IN LOS INTERESES CREADOS
Sirena—the elderly woman who lives by her wits and acts as a go-between in love affairs.
Silvia—the typical heroine.
Señora de Polichinela (Punch's wife)—frequently at odds with her husband; rather a colorless figure in Los intereses creados.
Colombina (Columbine, fixed name)—a fairy-like dancer, represented as wooed by Harlequin.
Leandro—the typical hero.
Crispín—the crafty servant.
El Doctor—the pompous, showy, corrupt man of the law.
Polichinela (Punch, fixed name)—one of the most prominent puppet characters, whose general qualities are hard to define; sometimes described as essentially ridiculous; very often represented as deformed and as a knave.
Arlequín (Harlequin, fixed name)—a graceful and acrobatic character, sometimes supposed to be invisible and a spirit of the air; Benavente makes him a poet.
El Capitán—the braggart soldier, considerably toned down in Los intereses creados.
Pantalón (Pantaloon, fixed name)—a silly old man (frequently a merchant) considered a butt of ridicule and fair game for all.
El Hostelero (the Innkeeper)—generally an object of ridicule in all literature; not particularly connected with the commedia dell'arte.
El Secretario—a fit companion for the Doctor; not particularly connected with the commedia dell'arte.