The Project Gutenberg eBook of Byzantine Churches in Constantinople their History and Architecture by Alexander van Millingen.

The scenes represented on these mosaics are not peculiar to this church, but are a selection from cycles of subjects which from the eleventh century became favourite themes for pictorial treatment on the walls of important churches in the Byzantine world. Several of these scenes are found portrayed also at Daphni, Mistra, S. Sophia at Kiev, in the churches of Mt. Athos, on diptychs and manuscripts, 545 as well as in the chapel of the arena at Padua. The cycle of subjects taken from the life of Mary was developed mainly in Syria, and Schmitt 546 goes so far as to maintain that the mosaics of the Chora are copies of Syrian mosaics executed by a Syrian artist, when the church was restored in the ninth century by Michael Syncellus, who, it will be remembered, came from Syria.

Kondakoff assigns most of the mosaics to the Comnenian restoration of the church by Maria Ducaena in the eleventh or twelfth century. One of them at least, the Deësis, has survived; and there may be others of that period, for, as that mosaic proves, the narthex of the church was decorated when the church was restored by that benefactress of the Chora. But the testimony of Nicephorus Gregoras, 547 of Theodore Metochites, 548 and the date marked on the scene representing the miracle of the wine at Cana, on the right of the figure of Christ over the door leading from the outer to the inner narthex, prove these mosaics to be as a whole the production of the fourteenth century. And this conclusion is confirmed by their unlikeness to mosaic work in the twelfth century, and by their affinity to other work of the same character done in the fourteenth century. 549

In fact, the mosaics in the Chora represent a remarkable revival in the history of Byzantine art. They are characterised by a comparative freedom from tradition, by closer approximation to reality and nature, by a charm and a sympathetic quality, and by a scheme of colour that indicate the coming of a new age and spirit. Curiously enough, they are contemporary with the frescoes of Giotto at Padua (1303-1306). But whatever points of similarity may be detected between them and the work of the Italian artist, or between them and the Italian school before Giotto, should be explained as due to a common stock of traditions and to the simultaneous awakening of a new intellectual and artistic life in the East and the West, rather than to any direct influence of one school of art upon another. The mosaics of the Chora are thoroughly Byzantine. 550

ὅσους ἂν ἁθροίζοι τις ἐνθάδε κρότους νεκροὺς ὁ ταφεὶς ἐξελέγξει Τορνίκης, ὁ τρὶς ἀριστεὺς ἢ κονσταῦλος μέγας, ὥσπερ μίμους, βέλτιστε, πιθήκους λέων. 5ὅς, βασιλικῶν ἀποτεχθεὶς αἱμάτων, παρέσχεν αὐτοῖς προσφυῆ καὶ τὸν τρόπον. ποῖον γὰρ οὐκ ἦν ἀρετῆς εἶδος φέρων, ὡς ὁ πρέπων ἕκαστον ἐζήτει χρόνος; βουληφόρος δ' οὖν, καὶ πρὸ τῆς ἡλικίας 10καὶ δημαγωγός, καὶ κριτὴς ἦν ἀγχίνους. καὶ πρὸς μὲν ἐχθροὺς τακτικὴν ἔπνει φλόγα, κεραυνὸς ὢν ἄφυκτος αὐτοῖς ἀθρόοις, τῇ δὲ στρατιᾷ πατρικῶς ἐπεστάτει, φρουρῶν τὰ κοινά, μὴ κλαπῇ τὸ συμφέρον. 15 κήδους δὲ τυχὼν εὐγενοῦς καὶ κοσμίου καὶ βασιλικὸν προσλαβὼν αὖθις γένος καὶ λαμπρὸν ὑπόδειγμα παρεὶς τὸν βίον, κεῖται μοναστὴς εὐτελὴς ἐν ὀστέοις. ἥλιε καὶ γῆ καὶ τελευταῖοι κρότοι. 20 πενθεῖ δὲ μικροῦ πᾶν τὸ Ῥωμαίων γένος, ὅσον περ αὐτὸν ἀγνοοῦν οὐ τυγχάνει. ἀλλ' ὦ μόνε, ζῶν καὶ μεθιστῶν τὰς φύσεις, εἴ πού τι καὶ πέπραχεν αὐτῷ μὴ πρέπον λύσιν παρασχὼν τὴν Ἐδὲν κλῆρον δίδου.

In line 7 the inscription reads φcρωN instead of φέρων; in line 23 IIρcποN for πρέπον.

Good Friend! However many dead applauses (celebrities) One may collect here, The entombed Tornikes, who was thrice a foremost man or Grand Constable, Will put them to shame as a lion will put to shame mimicking apes. He who was by birth of royal blood, Presented also a manner of life conformed to that descent. For what form of virtue did he not possess Such as the fitting occasion demanded each? Therefore he was a councillor before the usual age, And a popular leader and an acute judge, And upon enemies he breathed a strategic flame (such as military rules required), And was an irresistible thunderbolt upon their serried ranks. He presided over the army like a father, Guarding the commonweal lest any advantage to it should be stolen. Contracting a highly-born and seemly marriage connection, And securing thus again royal affinity, 551 And leaving his life as a splendid example, He lies a poor monk among bones! O sun, O earth, O final applauses! Well-nigh the whole Roman race laments him, As much of it as is not ignorant of him. But O only living One and transformer of natures, If perchance he did aught that was not fitting for him, Granting him pardon, give him Eden as his inheritance. 554

544 The remarkable head-dress he wears was given him as a special distinction by the Emperor Andronicus II. Palaeologus. The poet Philes (ode 41 in the appendix to vol. ii. of his works, lines 117-19) says φοροῦντα χρυσῆν ἐρυθρὰν τὴν καλύπτραν ἣν δῶρον αὐτῷ συνανέχοντι κράτος Ἄναξ ὁ λαμπρὸς Ἀνδρόνικος παρέσχε.

545 A work reproducing, under the Pope's authority, the eighty-two miniatures illustrating the Life of the Madonna, which was composed by a monk James in the twelfth century (Cod. Vatic. Gr. 1162), is announced (Danesi, Editore, Roma, 1911), with a preface and descriptions of the miniatures by Cosimo Stornajolo. The miniatures are said to rival those of the Greek Codex 1028 in the National Library in Paris.

552 In the translation I have been assisted by Sir W. M. Ramsay, Professor Bury, and Mr. E. M. Antoniadi. The meaning of τελευταῖοι κρότοι is not clear. Various interpretations have been suggested; to read βροτοί, mortals, instead of κρότοι, and to construe τελευταῖοι adverbially, 'finally, O mortals!'; to understand a reference to the judgment day, 'O applauses given at the final judgment'; to take the phrase as equivalent to, 'O celebrities at (or to) the very end of time'; to understand it as signifying the eulogies actually given to the deceased by the poet. Professor Tendès, of Athens, whom I thank for his courtesy in this connection, suggests that the meaning is similar to that of the phrase τὰ τελευταιά in the modern Greek form of eulogy, ἔκαμε πολλά, ἀλλὰ τὰ τελευταιά του.... 'He did many things, but his last performances!' (surpassed all his previous deeds). Here the meaning would therefore be, 'O grandest achievements that men praise!'

CHAPTER XXV

THE DATING AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHURCHES

The dating of the Constantinople churches is a problem of great difficulty, and, in the absence of documentary evidence, we must often be contented with very indefinite suggestions. Many churches are known to have been founded at dates which are evidently earlier than the existing buildings, and have apparently been rebuilt at some later date of which the record has been lost. Other churches are known to have been 'repaired,' and here the question of how far 'repair' means 'rebuilding' is sometimes insoluble. Repair may mean simply a fresh coat of paint.

The architectural characteristics afford a certain clue, and the following chronological scheme has been drawn up by their guidance:—

The pre-Justinian period is characterised by simple construction and detail of a late Roman type. Of this we have one example—the basilica of S. John of the Studion, founded about 463. The existing building appears to be original.

The Justinian period commences with the beginning of the sixth century. It is characterised by the development of the drumless dome on pendentives. The plan is complicated, and the buildings are large in comparison with those of later date. To this period belong SS. Sergius and Bacchus (527 A.D.), the baptistery of S. Sophia, and the 'Great Church' of S. Sophia itself. S. Andrew in Krisei and S. Saviour in the Chora probably date from this period. The carved detail of the former closely resembles that of SS. Sergius and Bacchus, and the plan of the latter connects it with S. Sophia, Salonica (sixth century).

The Justinian period roughly includes the seventh century, and is followed by a long decline, marked by the great iconoclastic controversy which lasted almost until the middle of the ninth century. To this period belongs S. Irene (740 A.D.). In plan it is a double-domed cross church. In the arrangement of the dome-arches and galleries it resembles S. Theodosia, whilst in the presence of a western gallery over the narthex and in the number of columns in the 'nave arcade' it is like S. Sophia.

The accession of Basil the Macedonian (867 A.D.) marks the beginning of the second great period—the 'Basilian Renaissance.' We know that this was a period of great religious activity, and though we have, unfortunately, no known dates to guide us, the development of plan leads us to place a group of churches in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. These are S. Mary Pammakaristos, S. Mary Panachrantos, S. Theodosia, S. Mary Diaconissa, and SS. Peter and Mark.

They are all churches of considerable size; S. Mary Diaconissa and S. Theodosia being indeed large. They are characterised by the use of the ambulatory and domed cross plans. The carving is coarse and the capitals are of the clumsy Byzantine Corinthian type. The dome is raised on a high drum in S. Mary Pammakaristos and S. Mary Panachrantos, though this may be a later addition. The domes of the other three churches seem to be Turkish. S. Mary Pammakaristos and the south church in S. Mary Panachrantos are identical in plan with S. Andrew in Krisei, and it would be possible to date them earlier had we any evidence whatsoever. Unfortunately both have been very much altered.

S. Theodosia, S. Mary Diaconissa, and SS. Peter and Mark, taken in this order, form a series showing the gradual disappearance of the galleries and the evolution of the domed cross church into the 'four columned' church of the next period.

The Myrelaion (919-945), if the present church is of that date, is an unusually early example of this four-columned type. It is generally considered that this plan type dates at the earliest from the eleventh century. There is, however, no reason to believe that the church was rebuilt later; it is a perfectly normal example of its class, and nowhere is an early example more probable than in Constantinople. The Myrelaion may accordingly be taken as marking the commencement of the late Byzantine period in Constantinople.

The churches are now smaller; the gynecaeum, where present, is placed over the narthex; the use of patterning in the brickwork of the exterior, which occurs in some of the Basilian churches (e.g. the cornice of S. Theodosia), now becomes important, and alternate coursing in brick and stone is used with great effect. From this time onwards narthexes were frequently added to the existing churches.

S. Saviour Pantokrator (1118-1143 A.D.) is the largest late church in Constantinople, and is an unusually large church of its type. S. Saviour Pantepoptes (1081-1118), S. Theodore, and S. John in Trullo, belong to the same class. The last, with its circular dome and apse, is probably the latest of the three. S. Thekla (1057-1059) and Bogdan Serai are examples of hall churches of the same period.

The monastery of Manuel was founded in 829-842 A.D., but the building believed to be the refectory is probably much later. As part of the monastery it might, of course, have been built at any date subsequent to the foundation of the House.

The architecture of the Sanjakdar does not correspond to the date of the foundation of the monastery of the Gastria in the ninth century. The building is certainly of late date, subsequent to the eleventh century. Of the Balaban Mesjedi it is impossible to say anything. It is the remnant of some Byzantine structure.

From 1204 to 1261, during the Latin Empire, we need not look for much building in the Greek Church. Soon after the fall of that empire comes the erection of S. Mary of the Mongols (1261-1282) and Monastir Jamissi (1282-1328). In both cases the architectural character is what we should expect. Following on this we have, in the fourteenth century, the alterations made in S. Saviour in the Chora (c. 1300), and the parecclesion of the Pammakaristos (c. 1315).

This was the last effort of pure Byzantine architecture in Constantinople. During the hundred years preceding the Turkish conquest in 1453 the gradually increasing pressure from the East put a stop to all architectural schemes; the craftsmen and artists fled to Italy, and there took their part in the great revival known as 'The Renaissance.'

Ambulatory.—S. Andrew in Krisei; S. Mary Panachrantos (South Church); S. Mary Pammakaristos.

Domed Cross Church.—S. Irene; S. Theodosia; S. Mary Diaconissa; SS. Peter and Mark.

Four Column Church.—Myrelaion; S. Saviour Pantepoptes; S. Saviour Pantokrator; S. John in Trullo; S. Mary Panachrantos (North Church); Parecclesion of S. Mary Pammakaristos.

Halls.—Bogdan Serai; Central Church of the Pantokrator; Monastir Mesjedi; Refectory of the monastery of Manuel; Parecclesion of S. Saviour in the Chora; S. Thekla.

6.	In the eastern lunette.—The birth of Jesus. In the background, to left, the angel appearing to the shepherds; to right, the magi beholding the star shining over the manger in which lies the Holy Child, while an ox and an ass feed in it. In the centre, Mary on a couch. In the foreground, to left, two women bathing the Holy Child; to the right, Joseph seated on the ground and gazing at the Holy Child.
	On the arch above the eastern lunette.—The busts (in medallions) of SS. Philemon, Leukius, Kallinikus, Thyrsus, Apollonius.
7.	In the western lunette.—Return of the Holy Family from Egypt to Nazareth.
	In the arch above the western lunette.—The busts (in medallions) of SS. Engraphus (?), Menas, Hermogenes, Laurus, Florus, Menas, Victor, Vikentius.
8.	In the vault.—The baptism of Jesus; the scenes in the temptation of Jesus.
9.	On the second transverse arch.—To the east, S. George; to the west, S. Demetrius.

10.	In the eastern lunette, over the door leading to the inner narthex.—Christ in the act of benediction.
11.	In the western lunette.—The Theotokos, in the attitude of prayer, with the Holy Child, in a nimbus, on her breast; the legend legend1 legend2 (the country of the Infinite); on the right and left, an angel.
12.	In the vault.—In the north-eastern corner, the miracle of water turned into wine. The date 1303, in Arabic numerals, is on this mosaic. In the south-eastern corner, the miracle of the loaves. These mosaics, placed on either side of the figure of Christ, are emblems of His character as the Giver of Life.
	In the north-western corner.—The sacrifice of a white bullock.
	In the south-eastern corner.—The second miracle of the loaves.
13.	On the third transverse arch.—Two saints, not named.

14.	In the eastern lunette.—To the left, the magi, on horseback, guided by a star, on their way to Jerusalem; to the right, the magi before Herod.
	On the arch above.—The busts (in medallions) of SS. Abibus, Ghourias, Samonas.
15.	In the western lunette.—Elizabeth fleeing with her child John from a soldier who pursues her with a drawn sword in his hand. The scenes in the vault have disappeared.
16.	On the fourth transverse arch.—Two saints, not named.

17.	In the eastern lunette.—Herod inquiring of the priests where the Christ should be born. The busts of three saints on the arch above have disappeared.
18.	In the western lunette.—Mothers at Bethlehem seated on the ground, and mourning the death of their infant children. The mosaics in other parts of this bay have disappeared.

	In the eastern pendentive.—To the left (19) the healing of a paralytic; to the right (20) the healing of the man sick of the dropsy.
21.	In the western pendentive.—To the left, the healing of another paralytic; to the right, Christ with the Samaritan woman at the well of Sychar; in the lunette, the massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem.
22.	In the southern lunette.—To the left, Herod orders the massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem; to the right, the massacre of the Innocents. The other mosaics in this bay have disappeared.

25.	In the crown.—Christ the Pantokrator.
	In the flutings, thirty-nine figures, arranged in two tiers, representing the ancestors of Christ from Adam to Esrom, Japhet, and the eleven sons of Jacob not in the line of ancestry.
26.	On the south-eastern pendentive.—The healing of the woman with a bloody issue.
27.	On the north-eastern pendentive.—The healing of Peter's mother-in-law.
28.	On the south-western pendentive.—The healing of a deaf and dumb man.
29.	On the north-western pendentive.—The healing of two blind men at Jericho.
30.	On the eastern wall below the dome, colossal figures of Mary and Christ, technically named the Deësis.
31.	On the opposite wall.—Christ healing divers diseases. The mosaics in the three other bays of this narthex depict scenes in the life of Mary as described in the apocryphal Protoevangelium of S. James and other apocryphal Gospels. 543

32.	In the centre.—The Theodokos; in the flutings, twenty-seven figures arranged in two tiers representing sixten royal ancestors of Christ, from David to Salathiel, and Melchisedec, Ananias, Azarias, Misael, Daniel, Joshua, Moses, Aaron, Ur, Samuel, Job.
33.	In the north-eastern pendentive.—The scene has disappeared.
34.	In the south-eastern pendentive.—S. Joachim (Mary's father) with his sheep in the desert, praying and mourning that his offerings have been rejected because he was childless.
35.	In the north-western pendentive.—The High Priest judging Mary.
36.	In the south-western pendentive.—The Annunciation to Mary.
37.	In the eastern lunette below the dome.—The Annunciation to S. Anna, the mother of Mary.
38.	On the soffit of the transverse arch between the first and second bays.—To the east, the meeting of S. Anna and S. Joachim; to the west, Joseph taking leave of Mary before his home, and proceeding to his work in another part of the country, accompanied by a servant.

39.	In the eastern lunette.—The birth of Mary.
40.	In the western lunette.—Joseph receiving the rod which marks him the successful suitor for Mary's hand, and taking her as his bride-elect.
41.	In the vault.—To the east, Mary held in the arms of S. Joachim, receiving the blessing of three priests seated at a banquet; to the west, the child Mary caressed by her parents. This scene shows much feeling.
42.	On the soffit of the transverse arch.—To the east, Mary taking her first seven steps ἡ ἑπταβηματίζουσα; to the west, the high priest praying before the rods, one of which, by blossoming, will designate the future husband of Mary.
43.	On the eastern wall, to the north of the main entrance into the church.—The Apostle Peter with the keys in his hand.

45.	In the western lunette.—Mary receiving purple and scarlet wool to weave in the veil of the temple.
46.	In the vault.—On the east, Mary admitted to the Holy of Holies when three years of age, lest she should go back to the world; on the west, the procession of maidens escorting Mary to the temple.
47.	The third transverse arch.—To the east, Mary in the temple receiving bread from the archangel Gabriel; to the west, Mary in the temple receiving instruction.
48.	On the eastern wall, to the south side of the main entrance to the church.—The Apostle Paul.

1.	Round the apse: Six Fathers of the Church (only one figure remains, and that badly damaged. No names are inscribed).
2.	In the vault of the apse: a full-length figure of Christ in a vesica dotted with stars. On either side are groups of figures.
3.	In the crown of the apse-arch: an angel in a medallion.
4.	In the northern wall, next the apse: Christ with two attendants; in the background a walled city. The Eastern bay.
On the northern wall:
5.	Above the arched recess: two medallion heads of SS. Sergius and Bacchus.
6.	Portions of the figure of a warrior.
7.	In the arch above Nos. 5 and 6: the Gate of Paradise.
8.	In the centre, one of the cherubims on a pillar. On the left hand, a multitude, painted on black background outside Paradise; on the right, Paradise, a garden full of trees on a white background. Here also are John the Baptist and a figure, probably the Virgin and Child, on a throne, attended by two angels.

On the southern wall:
8.	A portion of the figure of an armed angel. Above No. 8 and at the side of the window:
9.	Two men carrying a bier or platform. In front of them a third person giving directions.
10.	In the arched recess: full-length figures of Andronicus II. and his family. In the soffit of the arch, the head of Christ in a medallion, with rays issuing from behind the aureola.
11.	and 12. In the spandrils above the recess: two heads in medallions.
13.	In the dome vault: the Last Judgment. Christ in judgment fills the centre; behind Him are the twenty-four elders seated on a long throne; farther back is gathered the heavenly host.

On the southern wall:
14.	On the north-eastern pendentive: the Virgin and Child in a Paradise, with trees on a white background.
15.	On the south-eastern pendentive: the Mouth of Hell.
16.	On the south pilaster of the dome: an armed angel.
17.	Above that angel, on the arch: a man bearing the Seven-Branched Candlestick, and beside him another man bearing with both hands some object above his head, perhaps the Table of Shew Bread.
18.	On the northern pilaster: a warrior.
19.	In the centre of the arch: the Head of Christ in a medallion. The Western Bay.
20.	At the south-western corner where the wall is much damaged, a saint.
21.	Above No. 20, to the west of the window: Christ appearing to His disciples.
22.	To the east of the window, an indistinct scene, perhaps the Entombment.
23.	At the north-western corner: S. Samona.
24.	A saint, not named.
25.	Over the door two saints, one of whom holds a cross.
26.	The northern archway: In the centre is the door to the narrow passage between the parecclesion and the church. To the left, Jacob's Ladder; to the right, Moses at the Burning Bush. In the bush is a medallion of the Virgin and Child, and from the bush an angel addresses Moses, who holds his veil in his hand.
27,	28, 29, 30. In the pendentives of the dome: the Four Evangelists sitting at desks.
31.	The dome is divided into twelve segments by ribs, and is pierced by twelve windows. Above each window is an angel holding a spear, and below him is the legend 'Holy.' In the crown are the Virgin and Child in a medallion.
32.	A saint holding a small cross; below, in the south wall, the archivolt with the epitaph to Tornikes above it.
33.	A warrior saint with his sword and shield.
34.	Above Nos. 32 and 33 on the arch, a figure, clad in a white mantle and blue robe with a scroll in his hand, points to an angel, who holds his drawn sword in the right hand and the scabbard in the left hand, and seems to be attacking several persons in the right-hand corner. Behind him is a walled and fortified city, probably Jericho.
35.	On the north wall: S. Eutadius.
36.	The Adoration by the magi.
37,	38. On the west wall: the figures of two saints, not named.

Century.
V.	S. John of the Studion, 463.
VI.	SS. Sergius and Bacchus, 527-36.
	S. Sophia, 532-37.
	S. Saviour in the Chora (the Justinian foundation).
	S. Andrew in Krisei.
VIII.	S. Irene, 740.
	S. Mary Panachrantos (South Church); possibly earlier.
	S. Mary Pammakaristos; possibly earlier.
IX.	S. Theodosia.
	S. Mary Diaconissa.
	SS. Peter and Mark.
X.	The Myrelaion.
	S. Mary Panachrantos (South Church).
XI.	S. Thekla.
	S. Saviour in the Chora (restoration in the reign of Alexius I. Comnenus).
	S. Saviour Pantepoptes.
	S. Saviour Pantokrator.
XII.	S. Theodore.
	S. John in Trullo.
	Refectory of the monastery of Manuel?
	Bogdan Serai?
XIII.	S. Mary of the Mongols.
	Monastir Jamissi.
XIV.	S. Saviour in the Chora, 1306. Final restoration by Theodore Metochites.
	Parecclesion of the church of S. Mary Pammakaristos, c. 1315.
	Sanjakdar Mesjedi (Gastria)?
	Balaban Mesjedi?