Title: Mexico, Aztec, Spanish and Republican, Vol. 1 of 2
Author: Brantz Mayer
Release date: October 31, 2011 [eBook #37887]
Most recently updated: July 24, 2015
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Julia Miller, Larry B. Harrison and the Online
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I take the liberty to inscribe these volumes to you as a testimonial of personal gratitude. In the midst of engrossing cares you have often been pleased to turn aside for a while to foster those who were following the humbler and quieter walks of literature; and it is, naturally, their delight to offer for your acceptance, upon every suitable occasion, an acknowledgment of cordial thankfulness.
Allow me, then, as the only tribute I can tender, to present a work designed to illustrate the history and resources of one of those American States which were summoned into the brotherhood of nations by your sympathy and eloquence.
The people of the United States have always felt a deep interest in the history and destiny of Mexico. It was not only the commercial spirit of our citizens that awakened this sentiment. In former times, when the exclusive policy of Spain closed the door of intercourse with her American colonies, the ancient history of Peru and Mexico attracted the curiosity of our students. They were eager to solve the enigma of a strange civilization which had originated in the central portions of our continent in isolated independence of all the world. They desired, moreover, to know something of those enchanted regions, which, like the fabled garden of the Hesperides, were watched and warded with such jealous vigilance; and they craved to behold those marvelous mines whose boundless wealth was poured into the lap of Spain. The valuable work of Baron Humboldt, published in the early part of this century, stimulated this natural curiosity; and, when the revolutionary spirit of Europe penetrated our continent, and the masses rose to cast off colonial bondage, we hailed with joy every effort of the patriots who fought so bravely in the war of liberation. Bound to Mexico by geographical ties, though without a common language or lineage, we were the first to welcome her and the new American Sovereignties into the brotherhood of nations, and to fortify our continental alliance by embassies and treaties.
After more than twenty years of peaceful intercourse, the war of 1846 broke out between Mexico and our Union. Thousands, of all classes, professions and occupations,—educated and uneducated—observers and idlers,—poured into the territory of the invaded republic. In the course of the conflict these sturdy adventurers traversed the central and northern regions of Mexico, scoured her coasts, possessed themselves for many months of her beautiful Capital, and although they returned to their homes worn with the toils of war, none have ceased to remember the delicious land, amid whose sunny valleys and majestic mountains they had learned, at least, to admire the sublimity of nature. The returned warriors did not fail to report around their firesides the marvels they witnessed during their campaigns, and numerous works have been written to sketch the story of individual adventure, or to portray the most interesting physical features of various sections of the republic. Thus by war and literature, by ancient curiosity and political sympathy, by geographical position and commercial interest, Mexico has become perhaps the most interesting portion of the world to our countrymen at the present moment. And I have been led to believe that the American people would not receive unfavorably a work designed to describe the entire country, to develop its resources and condition, and to sketch impartially its history from the conquest to the present day.
It has been no ordinary task to chronicle the career of a nation for more than three centuries, to unveil the colonial government of sixty-two Viceroys, to follow the thread of war and politics through the mazes of revolution, and to track the rebellious spirit of intrigue amid the numerous civil outbreaks which have occurred since the downfall of Iturbide. The complete Viceroyal history of Mexico is now for the first time presented to the world in the English language, while, in Spanish, no single author has ever attempted it continuously. Free from the bias of Mexican partizanship, I have endeavored to narrate events fairly, and to paint character without regard to individual men. In describing the country, its resources, geography, finances, church, agriculture, army, industrial condition, and social as well as political prospects, I have taken care to provide myself with the most recent and respectable authorities. My residence in the country, and intimacy with many of its educated and intelligent patriots, enabled me to gather information in which I confided, and I have endeavored to fuse the whole mass of knowledge thus laboriously procured, with my personal, and, I hope, unprejudiced, observation.
I have not deemed it proper to encumber the margin of my pages with continual references to authorities that are rarely consulted by general readers, and could only be desired by critics who would often be tantalized by the citation of works, which, in all likelihood, are not to be found except in private collections in the United States, and some of which, I am quite sure, exist only in my own library or in the Mexican Legation, at Washington. Such references, whilst they occupied an undue portion of the book, would be ostentatiously and tediously pedantic in a work of so little pretension as mine. I may state, however, that no important fact has been asserted without authority, and, in order to indicate the greater portion of my published sources of reliance, I have subjoined a list of the principal materials consulted and carefully verified in the composition of these volumes. Nevertheless, I have perhaps failed sometimes to procure the standard works that are accessible to native or permanent residents of the country, and thus, may have fallen accidental into error, whilst honestly seeking to shun misstatement. If those whose information enables them to detect important mistakes will be kind enough to point them out candidly and clearly, I will gladly correct such serious faults if another edition should ever be required by an indulgent public.
I. HISTORICAL.
Cartas de Cortéz ed. Lorenzana.
Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España—Bernal Diaz.
Peter Martyr.
Conquista de Mejico, by De Solis.
Veytia. Herrera.
Robertson's History of America.
Clavigero—Historia Antigua de Mejico.
Prescott's History of the Conquest of Mexico.
Cavo y Bustamante—Tres Siglos de Mejico.
Alaman—Disertaciones sobre la Historia de Mejico.
Father Gage's America.
Ternaux-Compans's History of the Conquest.
Recopilacion de las leyes de las Indias.
Mendez—Observaciones sobre las leyes, &c., &c.
N. American Review, vol. XIX.
Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, in the Articles on Mexico, by Mr. Gallatin.
Researches, Philosophical and Antiquarian, concerning the Aboriginal History of America, by J. H. McCulloh.
Pesquisia contra Pedro de Alvarado y Nuño de Guzman.
Lives of the Viceroys in the Liceo Mejicano.
Notas y esclarecimientos à la historia de la Conquista de Mejico, por José F. Ramirez.—2d vol. of Mexican translation of Prescott.
Zavala—Revoluciones de Mejico desde 1808, hasta 1830.
Don Vicente Pazo's Letters on the United Provinces of South America.
Robinson's Memoirs of the Mexican Revolution.
Ward's Mexico in 1827, &c.
Foote's History of Texas.
Tejas in 1836.
Memorias para la Historia de la Guerra de Tejas, por General Vicente Filisola.
Forbes's California.
Greenhow's Oregon and California.
American State Papers.
Ranke—Fursten und Volker.
Dr. Dunham's History of Spain and Portugal.
General Waddy Thompson's Recollections of Mexico.
Apuntes para la historia de la guerra entre Mejico y los Estados Unidos.
Lectures on Mexican history, by José Maria Lacunza, Professor in the College of San Juan de Letran.
Constituciones de Mejico y de los Estados Mejicanos.
Thirteen octavo volumes of documents published by the Congress of the United States, relative to our intercourse and war with Mexico, collected by myself.
Tributo à la Verdad,—Vera Cruz 1847.
Humboldt, Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne.
Poinsett's Notes on Mexico.
Bullock's Mexico.
Lieut. Hardy's Journey in Mexico.
Ward's Mexico in 1827.
Folsom's Mexico in 1842.
Mühlenpfordt—Die Republik Mejico.
Mejico en 1842, por Luis Manuel de Rivero.
Mexico as it Was and as it Is, 1844.
Ensayo sobre el verdadero estado de la cuestion social y politica que se agita en la Republica Mejicana, por Otero, 1842.
Madame Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mexico.
Kennedy's Texas.
Emory, Abert, Cooke and Johnston—Journals in New Mexico and California—1848.
Frémont's Expeditions, 1842-'3-'4.
Frémont's California, 1848.
T. Butler King's Report on California, 1850.
W. Carey Jones's do. do. 1850.
Executive documents in relation to California, 1850.
Forbes's California.
Bryant's do.
Kendall's Santa Fé Expedition.
Wilkes's Exploring Expedition.
Wise—Los Gringos.
Ruxton's Travels in Mexico, &c.
Norman's Rambles in Yucatan.
" " in Mexico.
Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies.
Dr. Wislizenius's Memoir on New Mexico.
Stephens's Central America.
" Yucatan.
Gama—Piedras Antiguas de Mejico.
El Museo Mejicano.
Isidro R. Gondra's Notes on Mexican Antiquities, in the 3rd vol. (with plates) of the Mexican translation of Prescott.
Nebel—Voyage Arquéologique et Pittoresque en Mexique.
Memoir of the Mexican Minister of Foreign and Domestic Affairs on the condition of the country in 1846.
Idem in 1849.
Memoir of the Mexican Minister of War, 1844.
Idem in 1846.
Idem in 1849.
Memoir of the Mexican Minister of Finance on the condition of the Treasury, 1841.
Idem in 1846.
Idem in 1848.
Idem in 1849.
Memoir on the Agriculture and Manufactures of Mexico, by Don Lucas Alaman, 1843.
Memoir on the Liquidation of the National Debt, by Alaman, 1845.
Noticias Estadisticas del Estado de Chihuahua, 1834.
Noticias Estadisticas sobre el Departamento de Querétaro, 1845.
Nos. 1, 2, 3, Boletin del Instituto Nacional de Geografia y Estadistica, 1839–1849.
Collecion de documentos relativos al departamento de Californias, 1846.
El Observador Judicial de Mejico.
Semanario de la Industria Mejicana.
El Mosaico Mejicano.
Journal des Economistes.
Lyell's Geology.
Lerdo—Consideraciones sobre la condicion social y politica de la Republica Mejicana en 1847.
| CHAPTER I.—Discoveries of Cordova and Grijalva—Cortéz appointed by Velasquez—Biographical notice of Cortéz—Cortéz Captain General of the Armada—Equipment of the Expedition—Quarrel of Velasquez—Firmness of Cortéz—Expedition departs under Cortéz, | 13 |
| CHAPTER II.—Olmeda preaches to the Indians—Aguilar and Mariana—interpreters—Cortéz lands—interview with the Aztecs—Diplomacy—Montezuma's presents—Montezuma refuses to receive Cortéz, | 22 |
| CHAPTER III.—Cortéz founds La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz—Fleet destroyed—March to Mexico—Conquest of Tlascala—Cholula—Slaughter in Cholula—Valley of Mexico—Cortéz enters the Valley—Gigantic Causeway—Lake of Tezcoco—Reception by Montezuma—Spaniards enter the capital, | 28 |
| CHAPTER IV.—Description of the City of Tenochtitlan—Montezuma's way of life—Market-place—Cortéz at the Great Temple—Description of it— Place of Sacrifice—Sanctuaries—Huitzilopotchtli—Tezcatlipoca—Danger of Cortéz—Montezuma seized—Montezuma a prisoner—his submissiveness—Arrival of Narvaez—Cortéz's diplomacy—Cortéz overcomes Narvaez, and recruits his forces, | 35 |
| CHAPTER V.—Cortéz returns to the Capital—Causes of the revolt against the Spaniards—Cortéz condemns Alvarado—his conduct to Montezuma—Battle in the city—Montezuma mediates—Fight on the Great Temple or Teocalli—Retreat of the Spaniards—Noche Triste—Flight of the Spaniards to Tacuba, | 44 |
| CHAPTER VI.—Retreat to Otumba—Cortéz is encountered by a new army of Aztecs and auxiliaries—Victory of the Spaniards at Otumba—Proposed re-alliance of Aztecs and Tlascalans—Forays of Cortéz—reduction of the eastern regions—Cortéz proposes the reconquest—sends off the disaffected—Cortéz settles the Tlascalan succession, | 50 |
| CHAPTER VII.—Death of Cuitlahua—he is succeeded by Guatemozin—Aztecs learn the proposed reconquest—Cortéz's forces for this enterprise—Cortéz at Tezcoco—his plans and acts—Military expeditions of Cortéz in the Valley—Operations at Chalco and Cuernavaca—Xochimilco—return to Tacuba—Cortéz returns to Tezcoco and is reinforced, | 56 |
| CHAPTER VIII.—Cortéz returns—conspiracy among his men detected—Execution of Villafaña—Brigantines launched—Xicotencatl's treason and execution—Disposition of forces to attack the city—Siege and assaults on the city—Fight and reverses of the Spaniards—Sacrifice of captives—Flight of allies—Contest renewed— Starvation, | 62 |
| CHAPTER IX.—Aztec prediction—it is not verified—Cortéz reinforced by fresh arrivals—Famine in the city—Cortéz levels the city to its foundation—Condition of the capital—Attack renewed—Capture of Guatemozin—Surrender of the city—Frightful condition of the city, | 70 |
| CHAPTER X.—Duty of a historian—Motives of the Conquest—Character and deeds of Cortéz—Materials of the Conquest—Adventurers—Priests—Indian allies—Historical aspects of the Conquest, | 75 |
| CHAPTER XI.—Discontent at not finding gold—Torture of Guatemozin—Results of the fall of the capital—Mission from Michoacan—Rebuilding of the capital—Letters to the King—Intrigues against Cortéz—Fonseca—Narvaez—Tapia—Charles V. protects Cortéz and confirms his acts, | 80 |
| CHAPTER XII.—Cortéz commissioned by the Emperor—Velasquez—his death—Mexico rebuilt—Immigration—Repartimientos of Indians—Honduras—Guatemozin—Mariana—Cortéz accused—ordered to Spain for trial—his reception, honors and titles—he marries—his return to Mexico—resides at Tezcoco—Expeditions of Cortéz—California—Quivara—returns to Spain—death—Where are his bones? | 84 |
| CHAPTER XIII.—Archbishop Zumarraga's destruction of Mexican monuments, writings, documents—Mr. Gallatin's opinion of them—Traditions—two sources of accurate knowledge—Speculations on antiquity—Aztecs—Toltecs—Nahuatlacs—Acolhuans, &c.—Aztecs emigrate from Aztlan—settle in Anahuac—Tables of emigration of the original tribes—Other tribes in the empire, | 92 |
| CHAPTER XIV.—Difficulty of estimating the civilization of the Aztecs—Nations in Yucatan—Value of contemporary history—The Aztec monarchy—elective—Royal style in Tenochtitlan—Montezuma's way of life—Despotic power of the Emperor over life and law—Theft—intemperance—marriage—slavery—war—Military system and hospitals—Coin—Revenues—Aztec mythology—Image of Teoyaomiqui—Teocalli—Two kinds of sacrifice—Why the Aztecs sacrificed their prisoners—Common Sacrifice—Gladitorial Sacrifice—Sacrificial Stone—Aztec Calendar—week, month, year, cycle—Procession of the New Fire—Astronomical Science—Aztec Calendar—Tables, | 99 |
| CHAPTER I.—Colonial system—Early grants of power to rulers in Mexico by the Emperor Charles V.—Abuse of it—Council of the Indies—Laws—Royal audiences— Cabildos—Fueros—Relative positions of Spaniards and Creoles—Scheme of Spanish colonial trade—Restrictions on trade—Alcabala—Taxes—Papal Bulls—Bulls de Cruzada—de Defuntos—of Composition—Power of the Church—its property— Inquisition—The acts of the Inquisition—Repartimientos—Indians—Agriculturists—Miners—Mita—Excuses for maladministration, | 127 |
| CHAPTER II.—Founding of the Viceroyalty of New Spain—New Audiencia— Fuenleal—Mendoza—Early acts of the first Viceroy—Coinage—Rebellion in Jalisco—Viceroy suppresses it—Council of the Indies on Repartimientos—Indian Servitude—Quivara—Expeditions of Coronado and Alarcon—Pest in 1546—Revolution—Council of Bishops—Mines—Zapotecs revolt—Mendoza removed to Peru, | 139 |
| CHAPTER III.—Velasco endeavors to ameliorate the condition of the Indians—University of Mexico established—Inundation—Military colonization—Philip II.—Florida—Intrigues against Velasco—Philipine Isles—Death of Velasco—Marques de Falces—Baptism of the grand-children of Cortéz—Conspiracy against the Marques del Valle—his arrest—execution of his friends—Marques de Falces—charges against him—his fall—Errors of Philip II.—Fall of Muñoz and his return—Vindication of the Viceroy, | 148 |
| CHAPTER IV.—Almanza Viceroy—Chichimecas revolt—Jesuits— Inquisition—Pestilence—No Indian tribute exacted—Almanza departs—Xuares Viceroy—Weak Administration—Increase of commerce—Pedro Moya de Contreras Viceroy—Reforms under a new Viceroy—His power as Viceroy and Inquisitor—Zuñiga Viceroy—Treasure— Piracy—Cavendish—Drake captures a galeon—Zuñiga and the Audiencia of Guadalajara—His deposition from power, | 160 |
| CHAPTER V.—Luis de Velasco II. becomes Viceroy—Delight of the Mexicans—Factories reopened—Chichimecas—Colonization—Alameda—Indians taxed for European wars—Composition—Fowls—Acebedo Viceroy—Expedition to New Mexico—Indian ameliorations—Death of Philip II.—New scheme of hiring Indians—California—Montesclaros Viceroy—Inundation—Albarrada, | 170 |
| CHAPTER VI.—Second administration of Don Luis Velasco—His great work for the Drainage of the Valley—Lakes in the Valley—Danger of Inundation—History of the Desague of Huehuetoca—Operations of the engineers Martinez and Boot—The Franciscans—Completion of the Desague—La Obra del Consulado—Negro revolt—Extension of Oriental trade—Guerra Viceroy—De Cordova Viceroy—Indian revolt—Cordova founded, | 178 |
| CHAPTER VII.—Marques de Gelves Viceroy—his reforms—Narrative of Father Gage—Gelves forestalls the market—The Archbishop excommunicates Mexia, his agent—Quarrel between Gelves and the Archbishop—Viceroy excommunicated—Archbishop at Guadalupe—he is arrested at the altar—sent to Spain—Mexia threatened—Mob attacks the Palace—it is sacked—Viceroy escapes—Retribution, | 187 |
| CHAPTER VIII.—The Audiencia rules in the interregnum—Carillo Visitador—Inquisitorial examination—Acapulco taken—Attacks by the Dutch—Removal of the Capital proposed—Armendariz Viceroy—Escalona Viceroy—Palafox's conduct to the Viceroy—Palafox Viceroy—His good and evil, | 195 |
| CHAPTER IX.—Sotomayor Viceroy—Escalona vindicated—Monastic property—Bigotry of Palafox—Guzman Viceroy—Indian insurrection—Revolt of the Tarahumares—Success of the Indians—Indian wars—Duke de Alburquerque Viceroy—Attempt to assassinate him—Count de Baños Viceroy—Attempt to colonize—Escobar y Llamas and De Toledo Viceroys—Depredations of British cruisers—Nuño de Portugal Viceroy, | 201 |
| CHAPTER X.—Rivera Viceroy—La Cerda Viceroy—Revolt in New Mexico—Success of the Indians—Colony destroyed—Efforts of the Spaniards to reconquer—Vera Cruz sacked—Count Monclova Viceroy—Count Galve Viceroy—Tarrahumaric revolt—Indians pacified—Texas—Hispaniola attacked—Insurrection—Burning of the Palace—Famine—Earthquake, | 212 |
| CHAPTER XI.—Montañez Viceroy—Spiritual Conquest of California—Valladares Viceroy—Fair at Acapulco—Spanish monarchy—Austria—Bourbon—Montañez Viceroy—Jesuits in California—La Cueva Viceroy—Duke de Linares Viceroy—British slavery treaty—Colonization—Nuevo Leon—Texas—Operations in Texas—Alarcon—Aguayo—Casa-Fuerte's virtuous administration—Louis I.—Oriental trade—Spanish jealousy—The King's opinion of Casa-Fuerte—his acts, | 221 |
| CHAPTER XII.—Vizarron and Eguiarreta Viceroy—Eventless government—Salazar Viceroy—Colonial fears—Fuen-Clara Viceroy—Galeon lost—Mexico under Revilla-Gigedo I.—Ferdinand VI.—Indians—Taxes—Colonies in the north—Famine—Mines at Bolaños—Horcasitas—Character of Revilla-Gigedo—Villalon Viceroy—Charles III.—Cagigal Viceroy, | 232 |
| CHAPTER XIII.—Marques de Cruillas Viceroy—Charles III. proclaimed—Havana taken by the British—Military preparations—Peace—Pestilence—Galvez Visitador—Reforms—Tobacco monopoly—De Croix Viceroy—The Jesuits—their expulsion from Spanish dominions—their arrival in Europe—banished—Causes of this conduct to the order—Origin of the military character of Mexico, | 240 |
| CHAPTER XIV.—Bucareli y Ursua Viceroy—Progress of New Spain—Gold placers in Sonora—Mineral wealth at that period—Intellectual condition of the country—Line of Presidios—Mayorga Viceroy—Policy of Spain to England and her colonies—Operations on the Spanish Main, &c.—Matias Galvez Viceroy—his acts, | 248 |
| CHAPTER XV.—Bernardo de Galvez Viceroy—Chapultepec—Galvez dies—his daughter—Haro Viceroy—Corruption of Alcaldes—Flores Viceroy—his system of ruling the northern frontier—Mining interests—II. Revilla-Gigedo Viceroy—Charles IV.—Revilla-Gigedo's colonial improvements—his advice as to California Anecdotes of his police regulations—The street of Revilla-Gigedo—Arrest of fugitive lovers—Punishes the culprits, | 255 |
| CHAPTER XVI.—Branciforte Viceroy—his grasping and avaricious character—Corruption tolerated—Persecution of Frenchmen—Encampments—Branciforte's character—Azanza Viceroy—Effect of European wars on colonial trade and manufactures—Threatened revolt—Marquina Viceroy—Revolt in Jalisco—Iturrigaray Viceroy—Godoy's corruption—War—Defences against the United States—Miranda— Humboldt—Mexico taxed for European wars—Ferdinand VII.—Napoleon in Spain—King Joseph Bonaparte—Iturrigaray arrested—Garibay Viceroy, | 267 |
| CHAPTER I.—Lianza Viceroy—Audiencia—Venegas Viceroy—True sources of the Revolution—Creoles loyal to Ferdinand—Spaniards in favor of King Joseph—Mexican subscriptions for Spain—Secret union in Mexico against Spaniards—Hidalgo—Allende—First outbreak—Guanajuato sacked—Las Cruces—Mexico menaced—Indian bravery at Aculco—Marfil—Massacre at Guanajuato—Calleja—Insurgents defeated—Execution of Hidalgo, | 279 |
| CHAPTER II.—Venegas Viceroy—Rayon—Junta in 1811—its willingness to receive Ferdinand VII.—Proclamation by the Junta—Morelos—Acapulco taken—Successes of the insurgents—Siege of Cuautla—Izucar—Orizaba—Oaxaca—Chilpanzingo—Calleja Viceroy—Iturbide—Reverses of insurgents—Morelos shot, | 287 |
| CHAPTER III.—Apodaca Viceroy—Spanish constitution of 1812 proclaimed in Mexico—Condition of the revolutionary party—Victoria—Mina lands at Soto la Marina—his efforts—Los Remedios—Guerrillas—he is shot—Padre Torres—Iturbide—Apodaca selects him to establish absolutism—Iturbide promulgates the Plan of Iguala—Army of the Three Guaranties, | 293 |
| CHAPTER IV.—O'Donoju Viceroy—Conduct of Iturbide—Novella—Revolt—Treaty of Cordova—First Mexican Cortes—Iturbide Emperor—his career—exiled to Italy—Iturbide returns—arrest—execution—his character and services, | 301 |
| CHAPTER V.—Review of the condition of Mexico and the formation of parties—Viceroyal government—The people—The army—The church—Constitution of 1824—Echavari revolts—Victoria President—Escocesses—Yorkinos—Revolts continued—Montayno—Guerrero—Gomez Pedraza President—is overthrown—Federalists—Centralists—Guerrero President—Abolition of Slavery in Mexico, | 307 |
| CHAPTER VI.—Conspiracy against Guerrero by Bustamante—Guerrero betrayed and shot—Anecdote—Revolt under Santa Anna—he restores Pedraza and becomes President—Gomez Farias deposed—Church—Central Constitution of 1836—Santa Anna—his Texan disgrace—Mexia—Bustamante President—French at Vera Cruz Revolts in the north and in the capital—Bustamante deposed—Santa Anna President, | 316 |
| CHAPTER VII.—Reconquest of Texas proposed—Canalizo President ad interim—Revolution under Paredes in 1844—Santa Anna falls—Herrera President—Texan revolt—Origin of war with the United States—Texan war for the Constitution of 1824—Nationality recognized—Annexation to the United States—Proposition to Mexico—Herrera overthrown—Paredes President—Our minister rejected—Character of General Paredes, | 326 |
| CHAPTER VIII.—General Taylor ordered to the Rio Grande—History of Texan boundaries—Origin of the war—Military preparations—Commencement of hostilities—Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca—Matamoros—Taylor's advance—Fall of Monterey, | 334 |
| CHAPTER IX.—General Wool inspects and musters the western troops—Army of the Centre—New Mexico—Kearney—Macnamara—California— Frémont—Sonoma—Californian independence—Possession taken—Sloat—Stockton—A revolt—Pico—Treaty of Couenga—Kearney at San Pascual—is relieved—Disputes—San Gabrielle—Mesa—Los Angeles—Frémont's character, services, trial, | 342 |
| CHAPTER X.—Valley of the Rio Grande—Santa Anna at San Luis—Scott commander-in-chief—Plan of attack on the east coast—General Scott's plan—Doniphan's expedition—Bracito—Sacramento—Revolt in New Mexico—Murder of Richie—Selection of battle ground—Description of it—Battle of Angostura or Buena Vista—Mexican retreat—Tabasco—Tampico, | 350 |
| CHAPTER XI.—Santa Anna's return—changes his principles—Salas executive—Constitution of 1824 restored—Paredes—Plans of Salas and Santa Anna—his letter to Almonte—his views of the war—refuses the Dictatorship—commands the army—State of parties in Mexico—Puros—Moderados—Santa Anna at San Luis—Peace propositions—Internal troubles—Farias's controversy with the church—Polko revolution in the capital—Vice Presidency suppressed—Important decree, | 358 |
| CHAPTER XII.—General Scott at Lobos—Landing at and siege of Vera Cruz—Capitulation and condition of Vera Cruz—Condition of Mexico—Alvarado, etc., captured—Scott's advance—Description of Cerra Gordo—Mexican defences and military disposal there—Battle of Cerro Gordo—Peroté and Puebla yield—Santa Anna returns—Constitution of 1824 readopted—Mexican politics of the day—War spirit—Guerillas—Peace negotiations—Santa Anna's secret negotiations, | 370 |
| CHAPTER XIII.—Scott at Puebla—Tampico and Orizaba taken—Scott's advance—Topography of the Valley of Mexico—Routes to the capital—El Peñon—Mexicalzingo—Tezcoco—Chalco—Outer and inner lines around the city—Scott's advance by Chalco—The American army at San Augustin, | 381 |
| CHAPTER XIV.—Difficulties of the advance—The Pedregal—San Antonio—Hacienda—Relative position of American and Mexican armies—Path over the Pedregal to Contreras—Valencia disconcerts Santa Anna's plan of battle—American advance and victory at Contreras—San Antonio turned by Worth—Battle of Churubusco—Battle at the Convent and Tete de Pont—Their capture, | 391 |
| CHAPTER XV.—Why the city was not entered on the 20th—Condition of the city—Deliberation of the Mexican cabinet and proposals—Reasons why General Scott proposed and granted the armistice—Deliberations of commissioners—Parties against Santa Anna—Failure of the negotiation—Mexican desire to destroy Santa Anna, | 400 |
| CHAPTER XVI.—Military position of the Americans at the end of the armistice—Mexican defences—Plan of attack—Reconnoissances of Scott and Mason—Importance of Mexican position at Molino del Rey—Scott's scheme of capturing the city—Battle of Molino del Rey—Reflections and criticism on this battle—Preparations to attack Chapultepec—Storming of Chapultepec and of the city Gates of San Cosmé and Belen—Retreat of the Mexican army and government—American occupation of the city of Mexico, | 408 |
| CHAPTER XVII.—Attack of the city mob on the army—Quitman Governor—Peña President—Congress ordered—Siege of Puebla—Lane's, Lally's, and Childs's victories—Guerrilleros broken up—Mexican politics—Anaya President—Peace negotiations—Scott's decree—Peña President—Santa Anna and Lane—Santa Anna leaves Mexico for Jamaica—Treaty entered into—Its character—Santa Cruz de Rosales—Court of Inquiry—Internal troubles—Ambassadors at Querétaro—Treaty ratified—Evacuation—Revolutionary attempts—Condition of Mexico since the war—Character of Santa Anna—Note on the military critics, | 420 |
DISCOVERIES OF CORDOVA AND GRIJALVA.—CORTÉZ APPOINTED BY VELASQUEZ.—BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF CORTÉZ.—CORTÉZ CAPTAIN GENERAL OF THE ARMADA.—EQUIPMENT OF THE EXPEDITION.—QUARREL OF VELASQUEZ—FIRMNESS OF CORTÉZ.—EXPEDITION DEPARTS UNDER CORTÉZ.
There is perhaps no page in modern history so full of dramatic incidents and useful consequences, as that which records the discovery, conquest and development of America by the Spanish and Anglo Saxon races. The extraordinary achievements of Columbus, Cortéz, Pizarro, and Washington, have resulted in the acquisition of broad lands, immense wealth, and rational liberty; and the names of these heroes are thus indissolubly connected with the physical and intellectual progress of mankind.
In the following pages we propose to write the history, and depict the manners, customs and condition of Mexico. Our narrative begins with the first movements that were made for the conquest of the country; yet, we shall recount, fully and accurately, the story of those Indian princes,—the splendor of whose courts, and the misery of whose tragic doom, enhance the picturesque grandeur and solemn lessons that are exhibited in the career of Hernando Cortéz.
Cuba was the second island discovered, in the West Indies; but it was not until 1511, that Diego, son of the gallant admiral, who had hitherto maintained the seat of government in Hispaniola, resolved to occupy the adjacent isle of Fernandina,—as it was then called,—amid whose virgin mountains and forests he hoped to find new mines to repair the loss of those which were rapidly failing in Hispaniola. [1]
For the conquest of this imagined El Dorado, he prepared a small armament, under the command of Diego Velasquez, an ambitious and covetous leader, who, together with his lieutenant, Narvaez, soon established the Spanish authority in the island, of which he was appointed Governor.
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Columbus, after coasting the shores of Cuba for a great distance, had always believed that it constituted a portion of the continent, but it was soon discovered that the illustrious admiral had been in error, and that Cuba, extensive as it appeared to be, was, in fact, only an island.
In February, 1517, a Spanish hidalgo, Hernandez de Cordova, set sail, with three vessels, towards the adjacent Bahamas in search of slaves. He was driven by a succession of severe storms on coasts which had hitherto been unknown to the Spanish adventurers, and finally landed on that part of the continent which forms the north-eastern end of the peninsula of Yucatan, and is known as Cape Catoché. Here he first discovered the evidence of a more liberal civilization than had been hitherto known among his adventurous countrymen in the New World. Large and solid buildings, formed of stone;—cultivated fields;—delicate fabrics of cotton and precious metals,—indicated the presence of a race that had long emerged from the semi-barbarism of the Indian Isles. The bold but accidental explorer continued his voyage along the coast of the peninsula until he reached the site of Campeché; and then, after an absence of seven months and severe losses among his men, returned to Cuba, with but half the number of his reckless companions. He brought back with him, however, numerous evidences of the wealth and progress of the people he had fortuitously discovered on the American main; but he soon died, and left to others the task of completing the enterprise he had so auspiciously begun. The fruits of his discoveries remained to be gathered by Velasquez, who at once equipped four vessels and entrusted them to the command of his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, and on the 1st of May, 1518, this new commander left the port of St. Jago de Cuba. The first land he touched on his voyage of discovery, was the Island of Cozumel, whence he passed to the continent, glancing at the spots that had been previously visited by Cordova. So struck was he by the architecture, the improved agriculture, the civilized tastes, the friendly character and demeanor of the inhabitants, and, especially, by the sight of "large stone crosses, evidently objects of worship," that, in the enthusiasm of the moment, he gave to the land the name of Nueva España-or New Spain,—a title which has since been extended from the peninsula of Yucatan to even more than the entire empire of Montezuma and the Aztecs.
Grijalva did not content himself with a mere casual visit to the continent, but pursued his course along the coast, stopping at the Rio de Tabasco. Whilst at Rio de Vanderas, he enjoyed the first intercourse that ever took place between the Spaniards and Mexicans. The Cacique of the Province sought from the strangers a full account of their distant country and the motives of their visit, in order that he might convey the intelligence to his Aztec master. Presents were interchanged, and Grijalva received, in return for his toys and tinsel, a mass of jewels, together with ornaments and vessels of gold, which satisfied the adventurers that they had reached a country whose resources would repay them for the toil of further exploration. Accordingly, he despatched to Cuba with the joyous news, Pedro de Alvarado, one of his captains,—a man who was destined to play a conspicuous part in the future conquest,—whilst he, with the remainder of his companies, continued his coasting voyage to San Juan de Ulua, the Island of Sacrificios, and the northern shores, until he reached the Province of Panuco; whence, after an absence of six months, he set sail for Cuba, having been the first Spanish adventurer who trod the soil of Mexico.
But his return was not hailed even with gratitude. The florid reports of Pedro de Alvarado had already inflamed the ambition and avarice of Velasquez, who, impatient of the prolonged absence of Grijalva, had despatched a vessel under the command of Olid in search of his tardy officer. Nor was he content with this jealous exhibition of his temper; for, anxious to secure to himself all the glory and treasure to be derived from the boundless resources of a continent, he solicited authority from the Spanish crown to prosecute the adventures that had been so auspiciously begun; and, in the meanwhile, after considerable deliberation, resolved to fit out another armament on a scale, in some degree, commensurate with the military subjugation of the country, should he find himself opposed by its sovereign and people. After considerable doubt, difficulty and delay, he resolved to entrust this expedition to the command of Hernando Cortéz; "the last man," says Prescott, "to whom Velasquez,—could he have foreseen the results,—would have confided the enterprise."
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It will not be foreign to our purpose to sketch, briefly, the previous life of a man who subsequently became so eminent in the history of both worlds. Seven years before Columbus planted the standard of Castile and Arragon in the West Indies, Hernando Cortéz, was born, of a noble lineage, in the town of Medellin, in the Province of Estremadura, in Spain. His infancy was frail and delicate, but his constitution strengthened as he grew, until, at the age of fourteen, he was placed in the venerable university of Salamanca, where his parents, who rejoiced in the extreme vivacity of his talents, designed to prepare him for the profession of law, the emoluments of which were, at that period, most tempting in Spain. But the restless spirit of the future conqueror was not to be manacled by the musty ritual of a tedious science whose pursuit would confine him to a quiet life. He wasted two years at the college, and, like many men who subsequently became renowned either for thought or action, was finally sent home in disgrace. Nevertheless, in the midst of his recklessness, and by the quickness of his genius, he had learned "a little store of Latin," and acquired the habit of writing good prose, or of versifying agreeably. His father,—Don Martin Cortéz de Monroy, and his mother, Doña Catalina Pizarro Altamirano,—seem to have been accomplished people, nor is it improbable, that the greater part of their son's information was obtained under the influence of the domestic circle. At college he was free from all restraint,—giving himself up to the spirit of adventure, the pursuit of pleasure, and convivial intercourse,—so that no hope was entertained of his further improvement from scholastic studies. His worthy parents were, moreover, people of limited fortune, and unable to prolong these agreeable but profitless pursuits. Accordingly, when Cortéz attained the age of seventeen, they yielded to his proposal to enlist under the banner of Gonsalvo of Cordova, and to devote himself, heart and soul, to the military life which seemed most suitable for one of his wild, adventurous and resolute disposition. It was well for Spain and for himself, that the chivalric wish of Cortéz was not thwarted,—and that one of the ablest soldiers produced by Castile at that period, was not dwarfed by parental control into a bad lawyer or pestilent pettifogger.
The attention of our hero was soon directed towards the New World,—the stories of whose wealth had now for upwards of twenty years been pouring into the greedy ear of Spain,—and he speedily determined to embark in the armament which Nicolas de Ovando, the successor of Columbus, was fitting out for the West Indies. This design was frustrated, however, for two years longer, by an accident which occurred in one of his amours; nor did another opportunity present itself, until, at the age of nineteen, in 1504, he bade adieu to Spain in a small squadron bound to the Islands.
As soon as Cortéz reached Hispaniola, he visited the Governor, whom he had formerly known at home. Ovando was absent, but his secretary received the emigrant kindly, and assured him "a liberal grant of land." "I come for gold," replied Cortéz, sneeringly, "and not to toil like a peasant!" Ovando, however, was more fortunate than the secretary, in prevailing upon the future conqueror to forego the lottery of adventure, for no sooner had he returned to his post, than Cortéz was persuaded to accept a grant of land, a repartimiento of Indians, and the office of notary in the village of Açua. Here he seems to have dwelt until 1511, varying the routine of notarial and agricultural pursuits by an occasional adventure, of an amorous character, which involved him in duels. Sometimes he took part in the military expeditions under Diego Velasquez for the suppression of Indian insurrections in the interior. This was the school in which he learned his tactics, and here did he study the native character until he joined Velasquez for the conquest of Cuba.
As soon as this famous Island was reduced to Spanish authority, Cortéz became high in favor with Velasquez, who had received the commission of Governor. But love, intrigues, jealousy and ambition, quickly began to chequer the wayward life of our hero, and estranged him from Velasquez, for the new Governor found it difficult to satisfy the cravings of those rapacious adventurers who flocked in crowds to the New World, and, in all probability, clustered around Cortéz as the nucleus of discontent. It was soon resolved by these men to submit their complaints against Velasquez to the higher authorities in Hispaniola, and the daring Cortéz was fixed on as the bearer of the message in an open boat, across the eighteen intervening leagues. But the conspiracy was detected,—the rash ambassador confined in chains,—and only saved from hanging by the interposition of powerful friends.
Cortéz speedily contrived to relieve himself of the fetters with which he was bound, and, forcing a window, escaped from his prison to the sanctuary of a neighboring church. A few days after, however, he was seized whilst standing carelessly in front of the sacred edifice, and conveyed on board a vessel bound for Hispaniola, where he was to be tried. But his intrepidity and skill did not forsake him even in this strait. Ascending cautiously from the vessel's hold to the deck, he dropped into a boat and pulled near ashore, when dreading to risk the frail bark in the breakers, he abandoned his skiff,—plunged boldly into the surf,—and landing on the sands, sought again the sanctuary, whence he had been rudely snatched by the myrmidons of the Governor.
One of the causes of his quarrel with Velasquez had been an intrigue with a beautiful woman, in whose family the Governor was, perhaps, personally interested. The fickle Cortéz cruelly abandoned the fair Catalina Xuares at a most inauspicious moment of her fate, and was condemned for his conduct by all the best people in the Island; but now, under the influence of penitence or policy, his feelings suddenly experienced a strange revulsion. He expressed a contrite desire to do justice to the injured woman by marriage, and thus, at once obtained the favor of her family and the pardon of the Governor, who becoming permanently reconciled to Cortéz, presented him a liberal repartimiento of Indians together with broad lands in the neighborhood of St. Jago, of which he was soon made alcalde.
The future conqueror devoted himself henceforth to his duties with remarkable assiduity. Agriculture,—the introduction of cattle of the best breeds,—and the revenues of a share of the mines which he wrought,—soon began to enrich the restless adventurer who had settled down for a while into the quiet life of a married man. His beautiful wife fulfilled her share of the cares of life with remarkable fidelity, and seems to have contented the heart even of her liege lord, who declared himself as happy with his bride as if she had been the daughter of a duchess.
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At this juncture Alvarado returned with the account of the discoveries, the wealth, and the golden prospects of continental adventure which we have already narrated. Cortéz and Velasquez were alike fired by the alluring story. The old flame of enterprise was rekindled in the breast of the wild boy of Medellin, and when the Governor looked around for one who could command the projected expedition, he found none, among the hosts who pressed for service, better fitted for the enterprise by personal qualities and fortune, than Hernando Cortéz, whom he named Captain General of his Armada.
The high office and the important task imposed on him seem to have sobered the excitable, and heretofore fickle, mind of our hero. His ardent animal spirits, under the influence of a bold and lofty purpose, became the servants rather than the masters of his indomitable will, and he at once proceeded to arrange all the details of the expedition which he was to lead to Mexico. The means that he did not already possess in his own coffers, he raised by mortgage, and he applied the funds, thus obtained, to the purchase of vessels, rations, and military stores, or to the furnishing of adequate equipments for adventurers who were too poor to provide their own outfit. It is somewhat questionable whether Velasquez, the Governor, was very liberal in his personal and pecuniary contributions to this expedition, the cost of which amounted to about twenty thousand gold ducats. It has been alleged that Cortéz was the chief support of the adventure, and it is certain, that in later years, this question resulted in bitter litigation between the parties.
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Six ships and three hundred followers were soon prepared for the enterprise under Cortéz, and the Governor proceeded to give instructions to the leader, all of which are couched in language of unquestionable liberality.
The captain of the Armada was first to seek the missing Grijalva, after which the two commanders were to unite in their quest of gold and adventure. Six Christians, supposed to be lingering in captivity in Yucatan, were to be sought and released. Barter and traffic, generally, with the natives were to be encouraged and carried on, so as to avoid all offence against humanity or kindness. The Indians were to be christianized;—for the conversion of heathens was one of the dearest objects of the Spanish king. The aborigines, in turn, were to manifest their good will by ample gifts of jewels and treasure. The coasts and adjacent streams were to be surveyed,—and the productions of the country, its races, civilization, and institutions, were to be noted with minute accuracy, so that a faithful report might be returned to the crown, to whose honor and the service of God, it was hoped the enterprise would certainly redound.
Such was the state of things in the port of St. Jago, when jealous fears began to interrupt the confidence between Velasquez and Cortéz. The counsel of friends who were companions of the Governor, and his own notice of that personage's altered conduct, soon put the new Captain General of the Armada on his guard. Neither his equipment nor his crew was yet complete; nevertheless, he supplied his fleet with all the provisions he could hastily obtain at midnight; and, paying the provider with a massive chain which he had worn about his neck,—the last available remnant, perhaps, of his fortune,—he hastened with his officers on board the vessels.
On the 18th of November, 1518, he made sail for the port of Macaca, about fifteen leagues distant, and thence he proceeded to Trinidad, on the southern coast of Cuba. Here he obtained stores from the royal farms, whilst he recruited his forces from all classes, but especially from the returned troops and sailors of Grijalva's expedition. Pedro de Alvarado and his brothers; Cristoval de Olid, Alonzo de Avila, Juan Velasquez de Leon, Hernandez de Puerto Carrero, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, united their fortunes to his, and thus identified themselves forever with the conquest of Mexico. He added considerably to his stock by the seizure of several vessels and cargoes; and prudently got rid of Diego de Ordaz, whom he regarded as a spy of the estranged Velasquez.
At Trinidad, Cortéz was overtaken by orders for detention from his former friend and patron. These commands, however, were not enforced by the cautious official who received them; and Cortéz, forthwith, despatched Alvarado, by land, to Havana, whilst he prepared to follow with his fleet around the coast and western part of the island. At Havana he again added to his forces,—prepared arms and quilted armor as a defence against the Indian arrows,—and distributed his men into eleven companies under the command of experienced officers. But, before all his arrangements were completed, the commander of the place, Don Pedro Barba, was ordered, by express from Velasquez, to arrest Cortéz, whilst the Captain General of the Armada himself received a hypocritical letter from the same personage, "requesting him to delay his voyage till the governor could communicate with him in person!" Barba, however, knew that the attempt to seize the leader of such an enterprise and of such a band, would be vain;—whilst Cortéz, in reply to Velasquez, "implored his Excellency to rely on his boundless devotion to the interests of his Governor, but assured him, nevertheless, that he and his fleet, by divine permission, would sail on the following day!"
Accordingly, on the 18th of February, 1519, the little squadron weighed anchor, with one hundred and ten mariners, sixteen horses, five hundred and fifty-three soldiers, including thirty-two crossbowmen and thirteen arquebusiers, besides two hundred Indians of the island and a few native women, for menial offices. The ordnance consisted of ten heavy guns, four lighter pieces or falconets, together with a good supply of ammunition.
With this insignificant command and paltry equipment, Hernando Cortéz, at the age of thirty-three, set sail for the conquest of Mexico. He invoked on his enterprise the blessing of his patron, Saint Peter;—he addressed his followers in the language of encouragement and resolution;—he unfurled a velvet banner on which was emblazoned the figure of a crimson cross amid flames of blue and white, and he pointed to the motto which was to be the presage of victory: "Friends, let us follow the Cross: and under this sign, if we have faith, we shall conquer!"