Fig. 136. Anonymous Globe Gores in Plane Map Construction, ca. 1550.

In referring to unusual forms in gore construction attention may again be called to the map of Alonso de Santa Cruz and to that of Antonius Florianus, in which maps the plan was hemispherical,199 the central point in the construction of each hemisphere, a northern and a southern, being the pole, the circumference of the circle in which the thirty-six gores were drawn, representing the equator. But again we do not know that such a gore map was ever employed in globe construction though the method, it seems, would lend itself to that end.

It can be readily understood that numerous modifications in the matter of globe-gore construction and their application to the surface of the sphere, more or less detailed in character, were introduced as the years passed, but the modifications were by no means at all times in the line of improvement.200 The technical skill of the present day does not surpass that which one occasionally finds exhibited in the work of some three hundred years ago.

In the matter of geographical record terrestrial globe maps stand with the plane maps of the same period. While they are by no means as numerous as the plane maps, there attaches to them an importance no less historically significant. Not infrequently they give us records not to be found elsewhere. In their general features, differences can hardly be said to exist between plane maps and globe maps. In the matter of adornment there is similarity; each following the practice of the time when constructed. As pictures and legends hold a place of prominence, particularly on mediaeval maps,201 so even to the close of the period we have had under consideration, that is, the end of the eighteenth century, these adornments have place on globe maps, sometimes few, sometimes many, the same, if in picture, exhibiting the inhabitants of land and sea, if merely a legend, giving information of geographical importance on the terrestrial globe and of astronomical importance on the celestial, these legends being often placed in an artistic cartouch.

To the printed or engraved globe map, color was generally added by hand with an effect often very artistic, in contrast with which the modern machine methods of color printing are deplorably crude.

On most terrestrial globe maps meridian circles are represented at intervals of ten, twenty, or thirty degrees, the prime meridian on which the degrees of latitude are marked being usually made very conspicuous, and to the close of the period under consideration usually made to pass through the Cape Verde Islands or the Canaries, a point always to be carefully noted in attempting to get a reading for the longitude of any particular place. Parallels are usually drawn at intervals similar to those of meridians, the equator on which the degrees of longitude are marked, the tropics, and the polar circles being always conspicuous. The ecliptic or zodiac is usually indicated encircling the globe from the solstitial point on the tropics, intersecting the equator at the two opposite equinoctial points, through which as through the solstitial points the colures are made to pass.

Hues states that “Those lines which a ship, following the direction of the Magnetic Needle, describeth on the surface of the Sea, Petrus Nonius calleth in the Latin Rumbos, borrowing the appellation of his Countrymen the Portugals; which word, since it is now generally received by learned writers to express them by, we also will use the same,” that is, rhumbs or rhumb-lines.

These were represented on the globe, first by Mercator, by greater or lesser circles or “winding lines,” and were intended to be of aid to seamen in navigating from port to port across the great oceans. In their representation on the globe map cognizance was taken of the fact that all meridians of all places pass through both poles, crossing the equator therefore at right angles and all other circles parallel to it, and that if the navigator’s course is in any other direction than toward one of the poles he is continually changing his horizon and his meridian. The rhumbs as drawn were made to cut all meridians of all places at equal angles and to respect the same quarters of the world, that is, direction, whatever the horizon. Rhumbs can represent great circles only when they coincide with the equator or with any meridian.202

In the matter of draughting, printing, and mounting celestial globe gore maps the method employed may in general be said to be identical with that followed in terrestrial globe construction. It should, however, be noted that in pasting the gores on the surface of the sphere they were often so applied as to have their points or angles meet at the pole of the ecliptic, in what may be called the ecliptic system, instead of applying them to meet at the poles of the equator, the globe itself being generally so mounted as to revolve in the equatorial system, its poles of revolution being attached to the meridian circle.203

The figures of the several constellations were usually drawn with care, occasionally with high artistic taste, as those drawn by Hevelius (Fig. 137) and copied by Gerhard and Leonhard Valk for their celestial globes (Fig. 138). The several stars represented on the map, the majority of them being either lettered or named, were usually from the first to the sixth magnitude, each represented in its proportional size, while an explanatory table for the several magnitudes was usually given on some one of the gores. The stars and the figures of the several constellations, let it be noted, were not made to appear on the surface of the sphere, with rare exceptions, in their relative location as they appear to the observer who beholds them from his position on the surface of the earth, but are reversed. To the astronomer the earth is but a point in space, to the layman, so far as mere appearance is concerned, it is the center about which the starry heavens appear to revolve. With the pole (north for us in the northern hemisphere) as the center of the dial face the stars appear to move in a direction the reverse of that in which the hands of a clock are made to move. The astronomer, that is, the celestial globe maker, thinks of himself as placed beyond the vaulted heavens in which the stars appear to be located, and as looking down upon this vaulted dome as on the surface of his celestial globe. An illustration may here well serve us. As one observes serves Ursa Major on any starry night, which constellation we commonly call the Great Dipper, the bowl of the dipper, which is located in the body and flank of the bear, leads in its apparent motion around the pole star, being followed by the handle of the dipper or the tail of the bear (Fig. 139). On the surface of the celestial sphere, however, the position of bowl and handle was usually reversed, the constellation appearing as it would to the beholder who finds himself beyond the stars. Naturally the planets could not be represented on the surface of a solid celestial sphere; only in the armillary sphere or the orrery could they find place. In these instruments we generally find them represented, each with its circle or orbit properly given, and relatively properly placed.

In the geographical records as they appear on the several terrestrial globe maps, it is to be admitted that the authors, with rare exceptions, undertook to set down what they thought to be fact, shall we say the real tangible geographical fact or facts. The maker of the star map, on the contrary, clearly gave his imagination play, not in his attempt to mark in the proper location the several stars as they came to be known and catalogued, but in the draughting of the figures of the several constellations. The imaginative figures of the ancients, of Eudoxus, of Aratus, of Ptolemy and others survived throughout the period we have had under consideration, and to the forty-eight constellations of Ptolemy others from time to time were added until more than one hundred have been named and figured. In general the several constellations, as the various astronomers and makers of star maps have conceived them, may be said to be identical, while some of the names which have been proposed have been accepted but for a time only and then rejected. Some of the groups to which names have been given have later been divided, thus giving rise to a new group name and to the draughting of an appropriate figure for this new group.204

Attention has been called to certain suggested changes in the names of constellations as given by the ancients, as for example those suggested by the Venerable Bede, by Johannes Bayer, by Julius Schiller proposing that biblical or Christian names should be substituted for pagan names, and for these changes there was of course suggested an appropriate change in the figures for the several constellations. The proposal of Erhard Weigel has likewise been noted urging a substitution of the several coats of arms or heraldic devices of the European dynasties for the figures which had been so long and so generally accepted. There seems scarcely to be the need of stating that the names and figures of the ancients remain.205

A comparison of the work of the several artists who have set their hand to the draughting of figures for the numerous constellations is not without interest. Attention may here be directed in passing to the decidedly oriental cast of these figures as they appear on Arabic globes.206

It is to be regretted that in the present very practical or scientific day the star map, wanting the figures of the constellations or giving them in but the faintest outline, has come to supplant the artistic and not unscientific creations of earlier years.

The earliest references we have to globes, that is, to solid balls or spheres, make mention of their mountings, that is, to their encasing circles and their bases. The simplest mounting consisted of but a meridian and a horizon circle with probably a simple supporting base. The earliest spheres were doubtless made to revolve just as the globes of today, around their polar axes which turn within sockets firmly attached to the meridian circle. This meridian circle of brass or wood was usually graduated from one to ninety degrees, that is, from the equator to the poles, and being adjustable relative to the horizon circle, a globe could be set with a polar elevation for any desired latitude. Those who have had occasion to refer to the construction and the uses of the globe more or less in detail, make mention of what they call its threefold position. In the first of these positions either pole may be at the vertical point, the equator and the horizon being parallel or coinciding. This they termed a parallel sphere. In the second position the equator and the horizon circle are set at right angles. This they called a right sphere. In the third position, which was called an oblique sphere, the pole could be set at any elevation from zero to ninety degrees, counting from the horizon circle. In illustration of this third position it may be said that for the latitude of New York City, the north pole More conspicuous by reason of its width and importance in the mounting of the globe than the meridian is the horizon circle. It is through notches in this circle at the north and south points that the meridian circle passes, the notches also serving as gauges to keep the meridian from inclining more to the one side of the horizon circle than to the other. On the upper surface of this circle there were usually represented several concentric circles, the same being either engraved thereon, if it were of metal, and printed or pasted thereon if of wood, just as the globe map proper which covered the surface of the sphere. The number of concentric circles, and the information carried in each, varied, nor was the order of the circles invariably the same. Those globes giving fullest information exhibit ten or more of these circles. That one which was innermost and next to the body of the globe was divided into twelve parts, each part carrying the name of one of the signs of the zodiac with its character, and each divided into thirty equal parts or degrees, these being numbered by tens, as 0, 10, 20, 30. Next to the circle of signs, always remembering that the order might vary, was that containing the calendar including the names of the months, as January, February, March, etc., the days of the week being either distinguished by numbers or names. The old calendar was likewise usually given and so represented as to show the beginning of each month ten days earlier than in the new calendar. Here also were given the names of the church festival days. In the next circle were the names of the winds or directions, and first the Greek, Latin or Italian names of the eight, twelve or sixteen winds, as Greco, Libeccio, Ponente, Maestro, and next the names or initials of the thirty-two compass directions, the same generally in English or Dutch abbreviations. It may further be noted that a compass was often fixed in the horizon circle’s upper face. of the globe should be elevated 40 degrees 48 minutes above this circle.

A complete globe was further furnished with a quadrant of altitude, ninety degrees in length, this being attached at one end to the meridian circle, yet movable to any degree of the meridian, though commonly set at the zenith. This quadrant served for measuring altitudes or for finding amplitudes or azimuths.

The small hour circle,207 fitted to the meridian, its center being the pole and for us the north, was marked with the twenty-four hours of the day, each hour being again divided into halves and quarters. An index attached to the axis of the globe pointed out successively the hours as the globe was revolved. The use of this hour circle was to indicate the time of the successive mutations, including the rising and the setting of the celestial bodies and the time of their passing successively the meridians.

As a compass was often set into the horizon circle so also we frequently find a large or small compass set into that plate which in certain globes was employed as a support, tying together, as it were, the lower extremities of the base columns.208

It will have been noted that the globes referred to in the preceding pages varied greatly as to size, from the small ball representing the earth, and but a few centimeters in diameter, to be found in the center of those armillary spheres representing the Ptolemaic geocentric system, to the great globe of Coronelli fifteen feet in diameter constructed for Louis XIV of France. With rare exceptions metal globes were made small in size. Those globe balls or spheres, in the construction of which a mould was employed, usually had a diameter under 50 cm., although we find some of them twice this size. Such spheres had the advantage of lightness though often were frail in structure and liable to lose their perfect sphericity.

Fig. 140. Terrestrial Globe Gores by Johannes Oterschaden, ca. 1675.

In the matter of special ornamentation or decoration, to be observed in globe mountings, individual taste was given unlimited freedom to express itself, and in certain instances it will have been noted that these mountings were exceedingly elaborate.

Primarily we may say that globes were constructed for the useful purpose of promoting geographical and astronomical studies, generally recording the latest and best geographical or astronomical information and in form superior to that which could be set down on the plane map, but they also had a place of importance, secondary we may call it, on account of their decorative value. They came to be considered almost essential as adornments for the libraries of princes, of prosperous patricians, and of plodding students, and their mountings were often especially fashioned for the places they were to occupy. They seemed to lend an air of scholarly respectability; to suggest that their possessors wished to pay, certainly a modicum of homage to the sciences which globes were calculated to promote.

A brief concluding word may well be added touching those globes which may of course be classed as celestial, but which are known as moon globes and planetariums or orreries. There could be no practical value in an attempt to set forth a map of the surface of the stars, nor of the planets while our knowledge is so limited, although Schiaparelli has undertaken, with measurable success, to map the surface of Mars,209 and it would be next in order to construct a Mars globe. Of the surface of our moon much is known and maps of it have been constructed, as indeed have been moon globes. We are informed that about the middle of the seventeenth century the Danish astronomer, Hevelius, who designed so successfully star maps, entertained the idea of constructing a moon globe,210 but we do not know that he set his hand to the work. A century later it appears that the French astronomer La Hire actually completed a moon globe,211 but it has been possible to obtain only the briefest reference to it.

Tobias Mayer of Nürnberg, a contemporary of La Hire, set himself to the draughting of gore maps212 intended for use in the manufacture of moon globes. Mayer found employment in the Homann establishment of Nürnberg, being regarded as an exceedingly skilful draughtsman, able to sketch on his draughting sheet that which he saw through his telescope. His plan contemplated the making of twelve gores or segments, six for the northern half of the moon and six for the southern. His plan, of course, would enable him to represent but one side of the moon,—that turned toward the earth,—although it appeared that he contemplated the addition of two segments on which, in at least a fragmentary manner, he was to represent what we may call the border of the opposite side of the moon. Mayer seems not to have completed his work, since we find nowhere an example of his finished product.

It was not until near the close of the eighteenth that we again meet with an attempt to construct a moon globe and it seems that the task was accomplished by the Englishman, John Russel. It was in the year 1796 that he proposed to raise by subscription the necessary funds for making his undertaking a success. His globe has a diameter of 12 inches,213 and was furnished with the necessary adjustable shield that the moon’s waxing and waning could be represented. That this moon globe was actually constructed, although no copy has been located, we are informed by Wolf. Such attempts as were made in the nineteenth century with a good measure of success do not here call for consideration.

It has been previously noted that the so-called globe of Archimedes may have been a sort of planetarium, and that during the middle ages such instruments were constructed and employed in astronomical instruction. None, however, have come down to us out of those early years. Astronomers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as we know, made frequent use of planetariums, such for example as were constructed by the Dutch astronomer, Christiaan Haygens (1629-1695) for the illustration of planetary motion according to the Copernican system. Each of the planets was represented in his machine by a small ball, attached to an arm, which could be made to move through an orbit around the sun. In the more complicated machines the several planetary moons, such as the moons of Jupiter, were represented and were made to perform their proper motions.

Fig. 141. Celestial Globe Gores by Johannes Oterschaden, ca. 1675.

Bibliographical List

THE following bibliographical list includes the works referred to in the body of the foregoing pages, with certain additions of those touching incidentally globe making and globe makers. It is a suggestive list, not one that can be called exhaustive. Practically all those works in which the subject of geography and of astronomy has been treated historically may be consulted with interest and profit.

• Aa, A. J. v. d. Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden. Haarlem, 1852-1878.
• Abraham Ben Chijah. Liber de Sphaera. 1105. MS.
• Abulfeda, I. E. I. Takwim al Boldan (Geography). Tr. by M. Reinaud into French. Paris, 1848-1883.
• Adams, G. A. treatise describing and explaining the construction and the use of new celestial and terrestrial globes, designed to illustrate in the most easy manner the phenomena of the earth and heavens. London, 1766.
  • Astronomical and geographical essays. London, 1795.
  • A treatise on the construction of globes. London, 1769.
  • Geometrical and geographical essays, containing a description of mathematical instruments. London, 1791.
• Akerman, A. Globes céleste et terrestre de vingt-deux pouces. Upsala, 1766.
• Albertus Magnus (Albert of Bollstädt). Opera omnia. Ed. by P. Jammy. Leyden, 1651. 21 vols.
• Alfonso X. Libros del Saber de Astronomia del Rey D. Alfonso X de Castilla. Ed. by Don Manuel Rico y Sinobas. Madrid, 1863-1867. 5 vols.
• Allen, R. H. Star names and their meanings. New York, 1899.
• Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. Leipzig.
• Allgemeine Geographische Ephemeriden. See Zach, F. v.
• Amari, M. Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia. Firenze, 1868.
• American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society. Fifteenth Annual Report. New York, 1910.
• Andrea, M. J. L. Zweifache Sternkugel oder Himmelskugel. n. p., 1724.
• Annales de Géographie. Paris, 1891—.
• Annuario Astro-Meteorologico con efemeridi nautichi. Venezia, 1882—.
• Anonymous. Treatise of the use of globes celestial and terrestrial. London, 1647.
• 221
• Anonymous. W. J. Blaeus Antheil an der Bestimmung der Erdlangen. Stuttgart, 1875.
  • Portraits des hommes et des femmes illustrés par renaissance, n. p., 1792.
• Aratus. The Phaenomena and Diosemia of Aratus. Tr. by J. Lamb. London, 1847.
• Archaeologia. London, 1865.
• Archer, G. M. Henry Hudson, the Navigator. (In: Hakluyt Society Publications. London, 1860.)
• Arco, C. de. Delle arti e degli artifici di Mantova. Mantova, 1857.
• Aristotle. De Coelo. Tr. by T. Taylor, with title On the Heavens from the Greek with copious elucidations. London, 1807.
• Arx, J. V. Geschichte des Kantons St. Gallen. St. Gallen, 1810.
• Aschbach, J. Die Wiener Universität und ihre Humanisten im Zeitalters Kaiser Maximilians I. Wien, 1877.
• Assemani, G. Globus coelestis cufico-arabicus Veliterni Musei Borgiani. Patavii, 1790.
• Ausland, Das. Stuttgart, 1828—.
• Averdunk, H. And Muller-reinhard, J. Gerhard Mercator und die Geographen unter seinen Nachkommen. (In: Petermanns Mitteilungen. Gotha, 1914. Ergänzungsheft, Nr. 182.)
• Avezac, M. A. P. de. Notice des découvertes faites au moyen âge dans l’Ocean Atlantique. Paris, 1845.
  • Coup d’oeil historique sur la projection des cartes. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Paris, 1863.)
  • Martin Hylacomylus Waltzemüller, ses ouvrages et ses collaborateurs. Paris, 1867.
  • Sur un globe terrestre trouvé à Laon, antérieur à la découverte de l’Amérique. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Paris, 1860.)
• Azurara, G. E. de. The Chronicle of the discovery and conquest of Guinea done into English by C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage. (In: Hakluyt Society Publications. London, 1896-1899. 2 vols.)
•  
• Bacon, R. Opus Maius. Oxford, 1897.
• Badia, J. del. Egnazio Danti cosmografo e matematico. Firenze, 1882.
  • La bottega di Alesandro di Francisco Rosselli merciaje e stampatore (1525). Firenze, 1894.
• Del Badia, J. Egnazio Danti cosmografo e matematico. Firenze, 1882.
• Baglione, G. Le vite de pittori, scultori, architetti et intagliatori dal pontificato di Gregorio XIII del 1572 fino a tempo di Papa Urbano VIII nel 1642. Napoli, 1733.
• Bailly, F. The catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulug Beigh, Tycho Brahe, Halley, Hevelius deduced from the best authorities. London, 1843.
• Bartholomaei, F. Erhard Weigel: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften auf den deutschen Universitäten im XVI Jahrhundert. (In: Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik. Leipzig, 1868.)
• 222
• Baudet, P. J. H. Leven en werken van Willem Jansz. Blaeu. Uitgegeven door het provincial Utrechtsch genootschap van kunsten en wetenschappen. Utrecht, 1871.
  • Notice sur la part prise par Willem Jansz. Blaeu dans le détermination des longitudes terrestres. Utrecht, 1875.
• Bauer, L. A. Principal facts relating to the earth’s magnetism. (In: United States Magnetic Declination Tables and Isogonic Charts. Washington, 1902.)
• Baumgärtner, J. Zwei alte Globen von Blaeu: Erdkugel von 1599 und Himmel-Globen von 1603. (In: Das Ausland. Stuttgart, 1885.)
• Bayer, J. Uranometria, sive omnium asterismorum schemata quinquaginta et unum in totidem tabulis nova methoda delineata. Augustae Vindel, 1603.
• Beazley, C. R. The Dawn of Modern Geography. London, 1897-1906. 3 vols.
  • Globe of 1593. (In: Royal Geographical Journal. London, 1904.)
  • Prince Henry the Navigator. New York, London, 1895.
  • See Gomez, E.
  • See Azurara, G. E.
• Beda. Opuscula scientifica. Ed. by J. A. Giles. London, 1843.
• Beigel, W. Nachricht von einer Arabischen Himmelskugel mit Kufischer Schrift welche im Chürfurstlichen Mathematischen Salon zu Dresden aufbewahrt wirt. (In: Bodes Astronomisches Jahrbuch für das Jahr 1808. Berlin, 1808.)
• Berger, H. Die geographischen Fragmente des Eratosthenes. Leipzig, 1880.
  • Entwickelung der Geographie der Erdkugel bei den Hellenen. (In: Grenzboten. Leipzig, Jahrgang 39.)
  • Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen. Leipzig, 1903.
  • Die geographischen Fragmente des Hipparchus. Leipzig, 1869.
• Bernardo, F. Biblioteca scriptorum Ordinis Minorum S. Francisci Capucinorum. Venetia, 1747.
• Berthoud, F. Histoire de la mesure du temps par les horologes. Paris, 1802.
• Bertolotti, A. Artisti in relazione coi Gonzaga Signori di Mantova. Modena, 1885.
• Beste, G. A true discourse of the late voyages of discovery, for the finding of a passage to Cathaya, by the northweast undeer the conduct of Martin Frobischer Generall. London, 1578.
• Beyer, J. Descriptio globi coelestis et terrestris nova ratione composuiti. Hamburgi, 1718.
• Béziat, L. C. La vie et les travaux de Jean Hevelius. Rome, 1876.
• Bion, N. L’usage des globes céleste et terrestre, et des sphères suivant les differens systémes du monde. Ed. by N. Bion (son). Paris, 1751.
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  • Tafelen van de declinatie der sonne, ende der voornaemste vaste sterren. Amsterdam, 1625.
• Blaeu, J. Le Grande Atlas ou Cosmographie Blaviane. Amsterdam, 1663-1671. 12 vols.
• Blagrave, J. The Mathematical Jewel. London, 1585.
• Blau, M. Mémoires de la Société Royal de Nancy. Nancy, 1836.
• Blundeville, T. Mr. Blundeville his Exercises. London, 1594.
• Bode, J. E. Astronomisches Jahrbuch. Berlin, 1781-1826.
• Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiano. Roma, 1868.
• Bourgeat, J. B. Études sur Vincent de Beauvais. Paris, 1856.
• Bourne, E. G. Spain in America. New York, 1904.
• Brahe, T. Astronomiae instauratae mechanica. Noribergae, 1682.
  • Tychonis Brahe mathim: eminent: Dani opera omnia. Ed. by J. G. Schonvetteri. Francofurti, 1648.
  • Epistolarum astronomicarum libri. Uraniburgi, 1596.
• Brandstätter, F. A. Hevel’s Leben und seine Bedeutsamkeit. Danzig, 1861.
• Brehaut, E. An Encyclopedist of the Dark Ages, Isidore of Seville. (In: Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, Columbia University. New York, 1912.)
• Breusing, A. Gerhard Kremer, genannt Mercator, der deutsche Geograph. Duisbourg, 1869.
  • Leitfaden durch das Wiegenalter der Kartographie bis zum Jahre 1600. Frankfurt, 1883.
  • Das Verebnen der Kugelfläche. Bremen, 1893.
• Brion, M. Tablettes astronomique ou abrégé élémentaire de la sphère et des différens systèmes, avec l’usage des globes. Paris, 1774.
• British Museum Catalogue of Printed Books. London, 1841—.
• Britten, F. J. Old clocks and watches and their makers. London, 1899.
• Brown, A. The genesis of the United States. Boston and New York, 1891.
• Büdinger, M. Ueber Gerberts wissenschaftliche und politische Stellung. Kassel, 1851.
• Bulletin of the American Geographical Society. New York, 1852—.
• Bulletin de la Société de Géographie d’Anvers. Anvers, 1876—.
• Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Paris. Paris, 1822—.
• BUlletin de Géographie Historique et Descriptive. Paris, 1894—.
• Bunbury, E. H. History of Ancient Geography. London, 1883. 3 vols.
• Burritt, L. H. The geography of the heavens. New York, 1833.
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• Campano da Novara, G. Liber de Sphaera; de modo fabricandi Sphaeram solidam; de compositione quadrantis; de quadratura circuli. MSS. 13th Century. See Lalande. Bibliographie astronomique.
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• Cantor, M. Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik. Leipzig, 1894.
• Cardella, L. Memorie storiche di Cardinali della Sancta Romana Chiesa. Roma, 1792-1797. 9 vols.
• Cartwright, J. Isabella d’Este. London, 1903.
• Cassini, G. M. Nuovo atlante geografico universale. Roma, 1792-1801. 3 vols.
• Cassini, J. D. Méthode pour trouver la différence des longitudes des lieux par les observations correspondantes des phases des eacute;clipses de soleil, 1670. (In: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1733.)
  • La Méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par les observations des satellites de Jupiter, 1676. (In: Mémoires de l’Académie. Paris, 1743.)
  • Les hypothèses et les tables des satellites de Jupiter reformées sur de nouvelles observations, 1693. (In: Mémoires de l’Académie. Paris, 1730.)
  • Méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par des eacute;toiles fixes et des planètes par la Lune, 1703. (In: Mémoires de l’Académie. Paris, 1703.)
• Castellani. Catalogo rageonato delle più rare o più importanti opera geografiche a stampa che si conservano nella Biblioteca del Collegio Romano. Roma, 1876.
• Catalogue Général des Manuscrits des Bibliothèques Publiques de France. Paris, 1897.
• Catalogus Librorum, tam impressorum, qua, manuscriptorum, bibliothecae publicae universitatis Lugduno-Batavos. Lugduni apud Batavos, 1716.
• Ceradini, G. A propositio dei due globi Mercatoriani, 1541-1551. Milano, 1894.
• Céspedes, G. de. See Garcia de Céspedes.
• Chabas, F. Ouvres diverses publiées par G. Maspero. Paris, 1902.
• Chambers, R. (revised by T. Thompson). A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen. London, 1856.
• Chatel, M. Note sur une globe terrestre—de la succession de Titon du Tillet. (In: Mémoire lus à la Sorbonne. Paris, 1865.)
• Cheyneius, J. De sphaerae seu globi coelestis fabrica brevis praeceptio. Douay, 1575.
• Chytraeus, S. De nova stella. Rostock, 1577.
• Cicero, M. T. De Republica. Tr. by G. G. Hardingham. London, 1884.
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