POPULAR TECHNOLOGY;

OR,

PROFESSIONS AND TRADES.

NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS.
1870.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by

Harper & Brothers,

in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York.

CONTENTS

of

THE SECOND VOLUME.

2. According to the Mosaic records, Jubal, one of the descendants of Cain, played upon musical instruments, many hundred years before the flood. In the early period of the nations of antiquity, and in fact among all semi-barbarous people of later periods, the character of poet and singer were united in the same individual; and the voice was frequently accompanied by musical instruments. The oldest song which has descended to our times, and which is stated to have been exhibited in this manner, was that sung by Miriam, the sister of Moses, on the occasion of the passage of the Red Sea by the children of Israel.

3. The Hebrews employed music in their celebration of religious worship, which consisted, in part, in chanting solemn psalms with instrumental accompaniments. It was also used by them on the occasion of entertainments, as well as in the family circle. It reached its greatest perfection amongst the Jews, in the days of David and Solomon. It is supposed, that the priests of Egypt were versed in music, before the settlement of the family of Jacob in that country; but how far the Israelites were indebted to them for a knowledge of this pleasing art, is altogether uncertain.

4. Music was held in very high estimation among the Greeks, who attributed to it incredible effects. They even assure us that it is the chief amusement of the gods, and the principal employment of the blessed in heaven. Many of their laws, and the information relative to the gods and heroes, as well as exhortations to virtue, were written in verse, and sung publicly in chorus to the sound of instruments.

5. It was the opinion of the philosophers of Greece, that music was necessary to mould the character of a nation to virtue; and Plato asserts, that the music of his countrymen could not be altered, without affecting the constitution of the state itself. But in his time and afterwards, complaints were made of the degeneracy in this art, and a deterioration of national manners through its influence. The degeneracy probably consisted in its application to the expression of the tender passions; it having been previously applied, in most cases, to awaken patriotic and religious feeling.

6. The invention of music and of musical instruments, as in the cases of most of the arts and sciences among the Greeks, was attributed by the poets to some of the gods, or else to individuals of their own nation. It appears, however, from their traditions, that they received this art, or at least great improvements in its execution, from Phœnicia or Asia Minor. It began to be cultivated scientifically in Greece about 600 years before the advent of Christ.

7. The Romans seem to have derived the music which they employed in religious services from the Etruscans, but that used in war and on the stage from the Greeks. At an early period of their history, it was a great impediment to the progress of the art, that it was practised only by slaves.

8. The Roman orators pitched their voice, and regulated the different intonations through their speech, by the sound of instruments; and on the stage, the song, as well as part of the play itself, was accompanied with flutes. Wind-instruments of various kinds, comprised under the general name of tibiæ, and sometimes the cythera and harp, accompanied the chorus. In all these applications of music, the Romans had been preceded by the Greeks.

9. The Hebrews employed accents to express musical tones, but most other nations of antiquity used letters of the alphabet for this purpose; and, as they had not yet conceived the idea of the octave or parallel lines, to express a variety of tones in a similar manner by the aid of a key, they required a number of notes that must have been exceedingly perplexing.

10. The Greeks are said to have had about one thousand notes, half of which were for vocal, and the other half, for instrumental music. All these were expressed by placing the letters of their alphabet, or parts of them, in different positions. Accents were also used, partly by themselves, and in connexion with the letters.

11. The lines of a poem, set to music, were placed under the letters expressing the tones. The letters for the instrumental part were placed first, and under them those for the voice. The notes of the Greeks and Romans were not required to indicate the time in which they were to be pronounced, since in general the syllables of their language had a natural and distinct quantity. In the cases in which there was a liability to mistake, the syllables were marked with A, if long, and with B, if short.

12. The Romans expressed the fifteen chief tones of the Greeks with the fifteen first letters of the Latin alphabet; and these were reduced to seven, by Pope Gregory I., towards the end of the sixth century; so that the first seven capital letters were used for the first octave, the small letters for the higher octave, and the small letters doubled, for the highest octave. Parallel lines were soon after invented, on which the letters were written.

13. Musical sounds were expressed in this manner until the year 1024, when, according to some authors, Guido Aretine, a monk of Arezzo, invented points and rhombuses. He also introduced the use of five parallel lines, upon and between which his notes were written. The seven letters which had formerly been used as notes, now became clefs.

14. Still, however, the means of determining the duration of sound belonging to each note, without consulting the quantity of syllables in the verses to be sung, were yet to be provided. This desideratum was supplied by one Franco, a German of Cologne, who lived towards the end of the eleventh century. Some, however, attribute this improvement to John de Murs. The division of one note into others of less value was invented, in the sixteenth century, by Jean Mouton, chapel-master to King Francis I. of France.

15. The knowledge of music, as a science, was preserved in Europe, after the overthrow of the Western empire, through the influence of the Church. The apostles, and Hebrew converts generally, had been accustomed to the sacred music of the Jews; and, on this account, it was easy to continue the use of the same psalms and hymns in the Christian Church.

16. Many of the Grecian and Roman melodies were also set to words adapted to Christian worship. In regard to the manner of singing, in the early days of the Church, it was sometimes in solo, sometimes in alternate strains, and at other times in chorus; in which the whole assembly joined, repeating what had been before sung or read. In the fourth century, with the view of securing the proper execution of this part of divine worship, precentors were instituted, who were considered regular officers of the Church.

17. Pope Gregory I., surnamed the Great, distinguished himself by establishing a new singing-school, which became a model for many others, in the western division of the Church. In consequence of these schools, the singing became more artificial; and this, together with the circumstance that the hymns were in Latin, which had become obsolete, at length excluded the people from any participation in this part of the public worship.

18. Gregory also made a selection of the existing songs of the Church, and introduced a chant, which, through his influence, and that of his successors, was at length extended throughout Europe. It received the appellation of the Gregorian chant from his name. It was also called the choral song, because it was sung by a choir. This chant is said to be the foundation of our present church-music.

19. Music, in distinct parts, was not known until after the introduction of the improved method of writing music, invented, as before stated, by Guido Aretine and Franco. The development of harmony, in four parts, was assisted by the choral; but it was more particularly advanced by musical instruments, and especially by the organ. In the fifteenth century, music began again to be treated scientifically.

20. The Reformation produced great changes in the character of sacred music. Before that event took place, this part of religious worship was confined to a few fixed forms of texts, as in the mass, and this is still the case in the Roman Catholic Church; but the Protestants allow great variety both in the poetry and music. Luther's agency in the production of these changes was very considerable. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, church music became continually more brilliant, and always more corrupted, by the intermixture of profane music.

21. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there grew up, at the courts of the European monarchs, the free chamber style, from which arose that which was afterwards used in the theatre. The opera, which originated with three young noblemen at Florence in 1594, has contributed especially to the splendor and variety of modern vocal music, the advancement of which is claimed particularly by the Italians, as that of the instrumental kind is claimed by the Germans and French.

22. The composition of music, and its execution either vocally or instrumentally, as well as the business of imparting a knowledge of it to others, are embraced in the employment of the musician; although it is seldom, that all these branches are practised by one and the same individual. Music is one of the fine arts, and, during the middle ages, was one of the branches of what was then considered a learned education.

23. Since the scientific revival of music, the art has had so many distinguished professors, that we will not even attempt to give a list of their names. Their number was increased, and the art greatly perfected, by the singing-schools, called conservatories, established especially in Italy, either at the public expense, or by the liberality of individuals.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER.

1. This artist unites in his business some of the operations of the cabinet-maker, turner, and brazier. He also is dependent upon the wire-drawer, and the tanner and currier, for some of his materials. So great, however, is the number of musical instruments, and so different their nature and construction, that the business of making them is divided into several branches, all of which are never pursued, or carried on, by one person. But, without reference to the several divisions of this business, we will proceed to mention or describe the principal instruments which are now in most common use.

2. The organ is the largest of all musical instruments, and, in its improved state, so complex that a mere description of it cannot be well understood. Nevertheless, we will endeavor to give the reader some idea of the general principles on which it is constructed.

3. The most essential and prominent parts of this machine are the wind-chest, the pipes, and the bellows. The former of these is an oblong box, made perfectly air-tight, and placed in a horizontal position. The top of this chest is perforated with several rows of holes of different sizes, and into these are inserted the pipes. Those for the higher notes are of a cylindrical form, and are made of a mixture of metals, chiefly of tin and lead; but those designed for the expression of the lowest notes of the base are made of wood, in a square form. The dimensions of these pipes are regulated by a diapason, or scale.

4. There are as many of these rows of pipes, which are called stops, as there are kinds of tones in the organ; and to every row or stop is a plug, attached to a slide, which is denominated a register, and which is designed to regulate the admission of wind into the pipes. The pipes are also furnished with valves, which can be opened at pleasure, by means of keys similar to those of the piano-forte. Some organs have few, others have many stops; and, in order to regulate the force of sound, most church organs have two or three rows of keys, whereby a greater or less number of pipes may be filled, and the powers of the instrument may be controlled in what is called the small organ, or let loose, so as to become the full organ.

5. The fingering of an organ is similar to that of the piano-forte, so far as relates to the position of the keys; but, on account of the great number of holding notes in organ music, and the manner in which the sound is produced, the fingers are more kept down; whence it is considered injurious for performers on the piano-forte to practise on the organ, lest that lightness of touch, so necessary for the former instrument, be affected. It is hardly necessary to remark that, during the performance on the organ, the wind-chest is filled by means of the bellows.

6. The structure of the organ is lofty, elegant, and majestic; and its solemnity, grandeur, and volume of tone, have obtained for it a pre-eminence over every other instrument for the sacred purposes to which it has been applied. The largest organ known is in St. Peter's Church, at Rome. It has one hundred stops.

7. The church organ was probably suggested by the water organ of the Greeks, which was invented five or six hundred years before our era. At what period, organs began to be employed in churches, cannot now be ascertained. By some, it is said that Pope Vitelianus caused them to be used in Rome in the seventh century. Others are of opinion, that they were not introduced until three hundred years later. But, be this as it may, the church organ was not in common use until the fourteenth century; and now it is very different in its construction from that of early times. It has received many additions and improvements since the beginning of the fifteenth century.

8. The hand or barrel organ consists of a moveable cylinder, on which, by means of wires, pins, and staples, are marked the tunes which it is intended to perform. These pins and staples, by the revolution of the barrel, act upon the keys within, and give admission to the wind from the bellows to the pipes. The hand organ is so contrived that the revolution of the barrel gives motion to the bellows.

9. There are several instruments belonging to the class of horns, all of which are made of brass or silver. Those of the latter kind of metal are by far the softest in tone, but brass is the material most commonly employed. The chief instruments belonging to this class are the trumpet, the French horn, the bugle, the Kent bugle, the trombone, and the bass-horn. The serpent seems to be the connecting link between the trumpet and the flute.

10. The instruments classed with the flute, are the common flutes of various keys, German flutes, and several kinds of flageolets. Nearly allied to these are the clarionet, the hautboy, and bassoon. The breath is applied to the flageolet through an ivory tube at the end; and, in the three last named instruments, a thin reed, capable of a free vibration, is a part of the mouth-piece.

11. Of the instruments which produce musical sounds by the vibration of strings, there are a great number, of which the following are the principal;—the lyre, the harp, the guitar, the lute, the dulcimer, the harpsichord, the spinnet, the piano-forte, the violin, the violincello, and the base-viol. The strings of the three last are agitated with a bow; but those of this class first mentioned, are vibrated by the thumb and fingers, by some little instrument held in the hand, or by little hammers, moved by keys, as in the piano-forte.

12. The piano-forte is said to be the invention of Gottlieb Schroder, of Hohenstein, in Saxony, born in Dresden, about the year 1717. Before the introduction of this instrument, the clavichord, harpsichord, and spinnet, supplied its place. On all of these instruments complete harmony can be produced by a single performer, and the most difficult series of tones can be executed with rapidity, by means of a simple mechanism.

13. The piano-forte has been gradually improved, until it has become one of the most elegant instruments in the whole compass of musical practice. In firmness and strength of tone, the English piano-fortes formerly surpassed all others; but, within a few years, they have been equalled, and in some respects excelled, by those of American workmanship. The manufacture of this instrument constitutes the most extensive branch of musical instrument-making.

14. The instruments of percussion are the military drum, base-drum, kettle-drum, tabor, tamborine, and the triangle. The kettle-drum has received its name from its conformation. It has but one head, and is used in orchestres, and by the cavalry of modern armies, especially in Europe. The tabor has two heads, about three inches apart, and is beaten with one stick. The tamborine has one head, drawn over a hoop, to which are attached small bells and bits of tin, to make a jingling sound. The time is beaten on the head with the hand.

15. The bag-pipe is a wind instrument of high antiquity among the northern nations of Europe; but it has been so long a favorite with the natives of Scotland, that it may be considered their national instrument. It consists of a leather bag and three pipes. The first of the pipes is that by which the droning noise is produced, the second emits wind from the bottom of the bag, and the third is that on which the music is made.

16. During the performance on the bag-pipes, the bag is placed under the arm, and worked like a bellows, while the notes are modulated as on a flute or hautboy, by stopping and opening the holes, nine in number, with the ends of the fingers and thumb. The bag is filled by means of the breath blown into it through a pipe. In Rome, at the time of Advent, the peasants of the mountains express their veneration for the Virgin by playing on this instrument before her image.

3. The different degrees of elevation in reliefs, are expressed by various terms borrowed from the Italian. A figure is said to be in alto relievo, or high relief, when but a small proportion of it is buried in the back-ground; in mezzo relievo, or middle relief, when one half of it is above the surface; and in basso relievo, or low relief, when but little elevated, like figures upon coin. Bas-reliefs are usually applied as ornaments to buildings, and to the pediments of statues.

4. The subjects of sculpture, with a few exceptions, are the same as those of painting; and the course of study essential to proficiency in either, is very similar. They both require much taste and practice, and a thorough knowledge of the human form and other objects frequently represented. The young artist begins with imitating the most perfect models of Grecian art; and, after having become well acquainted with their beauties, he proceeds to the imitation of nature.

5. When any considerable work in stone or marble is to be done, the sculptor forms a model of clay or wax, to guide him in the execution. The soft material is moulded to the proposed form with the hands and small instruments of ivory. The model is by far the most difficult part of the work, and it is here the genius of the artist is to be displayed. The process of copying the model in stone or in any other substance, is an operation merely mechanical, and can often be done by another person as well as by the scientific sculptor himself.

6. The model having been prepared, the block of marble or stone is marked at certain points corresponding to its chief elevation and concavities. The material is then wrought to the rough outline of the figure, by means of strong steel points, drills, and other perforating tools; and the asperities are afterwards removed with chisels, and with rasps and files of different shapes. When a high polish is required, it is produced by friction with pumice-stone, tripoli, and straw ashes.

7. Marble and stone are carved in a similar manner; but the latter, being softer, can be wrought with less difficulty. The defects which may be met with in the stone are repaired with a composition of plaster of Paris and the same stone, pulverized and mixed with water.

8. Casts in plaster of Paris and bronze are taken from models, statues, busts, bas-reliefs, and living persons. To do this, it is necessary to form a mould from the subject to be copied. This is done by spreading over it some soft substance, which can be readily forced into all the cavities, and which will harden by drying or cooling. Plaster of Paris is the most usual material employed for this purpose.

9. When the subject is a bas-relief, or any other one-sided figure of a similar kind, the mould can be withdrawn without injury, in a single piece; but if it is a statue, or any other figure of like form, it is necessary to divide the mould into several pieces, in order to a safe removal. These pieces again united constitute a perfect mould. While the artist is forming the mould on the face of a living person, the latter breathes through tubes inserted into the nostrils.

10. In taking casts from such a mould, the internal surface is oiled to prevent adhesion, and then plaster mixed with water is poured into it through a small orifice. The mould is afterwards turned in every direction, that the plaster may cover every part of the surface; and when a sufficiency of it has been distributed to produce the requisite strength, and the plaster has acquired the proper solidity, the several pieces are removed from the cast, which, of course, is an exact resemblance of the subject on which the mould was formed.

11. Superfluous portions of the material, produced by the seams in the mould, are removed with suitable instruments, and applications of fresh plaster are made, where necessary to repair blemishes. The cast is finished by dipping it in a varnish made of soap, white wax, and water, and afterwards rubbing it with soft linen. The polish produced in this manner, approaches that of marble.

12. The durability of plaster casts, exposed to the weather, is greatly increased by saturating them with linseed oil combined with wax or rosin. They are made to resemble bronze by the application of a soap composed of linseed oil and soda, and colored with the sulphate of copper and iron.

13. Moulds are, also, formed of a warm solution of glue, which hardens upon cooling, and such are called elastic moulds. This material is sometimes preferred on account of its more easy separation from irregular surfaces. For small and delicate impressions in bas-relief, melted sulphur is sometimes employed; also a strong solution of isinglass in proof spirits. All three of the substances last mentioned yield sharper impressions than plaster of Paris.

14. Statues designed to occupy situations in which they may be exposed to the weather and mechanical violence, are often made of bronze cast in moulds. The external portions of the mould are made on the pattern, out of plaster, brick-dust, and water. The mould is then covered on the inside with a coating of clay as thick as the bronze is intended to be, and the several pieces are afterwards put together, or closed. The internal cavity is next filled with a composition like that on the other side of the clay.

15. When this has been done, the several pieces forming the outside of the mould are separated, and the clay carefully removed. These having been again united, and the core or internal portion of the mould secured in its true position, the whole is bound with iron hoops, and thoroughly dried. The melted bronze is poured into the cavity formed by the removal of the clay, through an aperture made for the purpose. The cast is afterwards rendered smooth by mechanical means.

16. It is conjectured with much reason, that sculpture was one of the arts practised before the deluge, and that it was transmitted to posterity by the survivors of that catastrophe. The first images were probably made for the purpose of perpetuating the memory of the dead; but, in process of time, they became objects of adoration. As the Chaldeans were unquestionably the first idolators after the flood, so are they supposed to have been the first who made progress in sculpture.

17. The first notice of this art in the Mosaic writings, is found in the passage relative to the teraphim, or idols, which Rachel, the wife of Jacob, carried clandestinely from her father's house; and the first persons mentioned in the Bible, as artists, are Aholiab and Bezaleel, who formed the cherubim which covered the mercy-seat, together with some other furniture of the tabernacle, and the sculptured ornaments of the garments of the high-priest.

18. From the same authority, we learn that the nations expelled from Canaan, by the Jewish people, were not ignorant of sculpture and painting; for Moses repeatedly commands the latter to destroy the pictures and molten images which might be discovered in their progress through the land. The Israelites crossed the river Jordan about 1500 years before the commencement of our era.

19. From this time to the end of the Jewish polity, we often meet in the Scriptures with indications of the fine arts; but the splendor of Solomon's temple, clearly points out the days of that prince as the period in which they had attained their greatest perfection in Judea.

20. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Phœnicians, became considerably skilful in sculpture, at a very early period, as we learn from early history, and some existing remains. The same remark is also applicable to the inhabitants of Hindostan. But writers have been more particular in noticing the style of design among the Egyptians, because the progress of the arts among that people is more easily traced, and because it is supposed to elucidate that of most other ancient nations.

21. The chief objects of sculpture, among the Egyptians, were pillars, and other architectural ornaments, idols, the human figure, animals, and hieroglyphics, engraved in a kind of bas-relief on public edifices, and the forms of animals. Most of the great works of this nation are supposed to have been executed during and after the reign of Sesostris, who lived in the days of Rehoboam, king of Israel, or about 1000 years before the Christian era.

22. But of all the nations of antiquity, the Greeks were the most distinguished for sculpture. They derived the first rudiments of the art from the Phœnicians, or Egyptians, although they assert that they themselves were its inventors. Its existence, in a rude state, among that people, preceded that of letters or scientific architecture.

23. Dædalus, who lived about 100 years after Moses, was the first sculptor among the Greeks, of any notoriety. The statues made before his time, were stiff, formal figures, having the arms attached to the body, and the legs united, like the mummy-shaped productions of Egyptian art. He separated the legs of his statues, and placed them, and the upper extremities, in a natural position. He also was the first sculptor who made the eyes of his statues open. On account of these improvements, the Greeks said, that his divine genius made statues walk, and see, and speak.

24. The disciples and imitators of Dædalus were called his sons, and artists, generally, Dædalides. Soon after this period, schools of design were established in the island of Ægina, at Corinth, at Sicyon, and in Etruria, in Italy: but it seems that no good representations of the human form were effected until near the time of Phidias, who was born 444 years before Christ.

25. This most distinguished of all the votaries of sculpture, flourished at or near the same time with the dramatic poets, Æschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles; the philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Anaxagoras; and the statesmen and commanders, Pericles, Miltiades, Themistocles, Cimon, and Xenophon. This was the most refined period of Grecian history, and of all others, the most favorable in its moral and political circumstances, for the development of genius.

26. Phidias was the author of the ideal style, which, in the fine arts, may be defined, the union of the perfections of any class of figures. Among the distinguished productions of this artist, the colossal statues of Minerva and Jupiter Olympius, made of gold and ivory, have excited the greatest astonishment. The former, executed for the Parthenon of Athens, was twenty-six cubits in height; and the latter, for a splendid temple at Elis, was about the same height, although seated upon a throne.

27. The favorite disciples of Phidias, were Alcamenes, of Attica, and Agoracritus, of Paros; and at the same time with them, flourished Polycletus, of Argos, Miron, of Bœotia, and Pythagoras, of Rhegium. The beautiful style soon succeeded to the ideal; the authors of which, were Praxiteles and Scopas, who brought the art to the highest perfection,—since, in their productions, they united beauty and grace. After the days of these two artists, sculpture began to decline; although it continued to be practised with considerable success, for some centuries after this period.

28. The great superiority of the Greeks in the art of sculpture, is ascribed to various causes; among which are classed, their innate love of beauty, and their own elegance of form, combined with the frequent opportunities of studying the human figure, in places where youth were in the habit of performing athletic exercises in a state of nudity. To these may be added, the practice of awarding to citizens a statue of their own persons, for eminent services to the state, and for excelling in exercises at the public games.

29. The fine arts were nearly extinguished in Greece, by the conquest of the Romans; who, with ruthless rapacity, seized upon, and transferred to their metropolis and villas, the superb works of taste with which the country abounded. By these means, however, a taste for the arts was produced among the Romans, who encouraged with great liberality the Greek artists who resorted in great numbers to their city.

30. The arts at length declined at Rome, and finally became nearly extinct in that city, soon after Byzantium was made the capital of the Roman empire, in 329 of the Christian era. The new capitol was enriched by the most valuable statuary of the old metropolis, and by a farther pillage of Greece. Artists were also encouraged with a munificence similar to that of former times; and many new subjects in painting and sculpture, in illustration of the Christian scriptures, were executed as embellishments for the sacred buildings of the city.

31. The art of sculpture necessarily declined during the time of the unsettled state of Europe, which followed the conquests by the barbarous nations. It, however, was not altogether lost, but was occasionally practised, although in a very rude manner, in several kingdoms of Europe. In the eleventh century, after the terrors of the northern invasions had passed away, and the governments had become more established, the arts of design began a regular course of improvement, which has been denominated their revival.

32. This improvement was promoted by means of the frequent intercourse which had sprung up between the commercial cities of Italy and the Greek empire. In 1016, the Pisans founded their great church, called the Dome of Pisa; and, in its construction, they employed many noble pillars and other fragments of Grecian edifices. They also engaged upon the work several Grecian sculptors and painters, who exerted in their service the little skill which had come down from antiquity.

33. The specimens of ancient art thus introduced at Pisa, and the works of these artists, at length incited several Italians to emulation; among whom was Nicolo Pisano, who became the restorer of true taste in the arts, in the thirteenth century. At this period, the crusades had diffused such a zeal for the Christian religion, that magnificent churches were built in every part of Italy, in the designing of which, and in their decoration with sculpture, Pisano and his scholars were universally employed.

34. John Pisano, the son of Nicolo, was also an architect and sculptor of eminence; and by him was built, for King Charles, a castle, and several churches, at Naples. He also executed several pieces of sculpture, and superintended the construction of some edifices in Tuscany. This sculptor, who died in 1320, had several pupils, of whom Agostino and Agnolo Sanesi were the best sculptors of the time.

35. In 1350, an academy of design was formed at Florence by the union of several painters, sculptors, and architects. This institution was called after St. Luke, whom tradition makes a painter by profession. The society was afterwards munificently patronised by the Medici, a noble and wealthy family of that city.

36. From this school, there soon proceeded a great number of skilful artists, among whom were the sculptors Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donatello, and Brunileschi; and after these, others perhaps still more distinguished, until it produced Michael Angelo Buonarotti, who, as a universal genius in the arts of design, has excelled every other artist, whether ancient or modern.

37. This great man was born in Florence, in 1474. His father, having discovered his talent for designing, made him a pupil of Dominic Ghirlandaio, who instructed him in the first principles of the art of drawing. He studied statuary under Bartoldo; and, in his sixteenth year, copied the head of a satyr in marble, to the admiration of all connoisseurs. On account of his great promise, he was liberally patronised by Lorenzo de Medicis, who, besides allowing him a pension, gave him a lodging in the palace, and a place at his table. After the death of this prince, he enjoyed the same favors from his son, Pietro de Medicis.

38. His reputation as an artist having been established at Florence, he was called to Rome by Julius II. From this time, he remained chiefly in the service of the popes, for whom he executed many inimitable works, both of sculpture and painting. He was also an architect of the first order; and, as such, was employed on St. Peter's Church, as well as on several other public edifices. He died in 1564, at an advanced age.

39. Sculpture, having been brought to as high a state of perfection as it was ever likely to be carried, began to decline in Italy, as it had done before, under similar circumstances, in ancient times; but as barbarism did not again occur to overwhelm it, it did not entirely disappear. It continued to be practised, although in a very inferior degree, until it was again revived by Antonio Canoya, near the close of the eighteenth century.

40. The French nation, from its vicinity and intercourse with Italy, obtained from that country the means of improvement in every branch of the fine arts. Accordingly, native artists of considerable merit occasionally appeared. The kings of France, also, often employed Italian architects and sculptors on their great public works. In the reign of Francis I., Leonardo da Vinci, and two other artists from Italy, established a school of fine arts similar to that of St. Luke, at Florence; and the genius of the people, added to national munificence, have kept a respectable school of sculpture to the present time.

41. Considerable ability in sculpture has likewise been exhibited by native artists of Spain, Germany, Holland, England, and some other countries of Europe; but whatever skill has been displayed in any of these countries has been derived, in an indirect manner, at least, from Italy. In the United States, the fine arts have been cultivated with considerable spirit. An academy for this purpose has been established both in New York and Philadelphia, and a picture gallery has been connected with the Athenæum in Boston, in which the annual exhibition of paintings is respectable.