[1] I am greatly indebted to Prof. W. H. Dall, of the Coast Survey, for assistance in the identification of Pacific coast varieties.
[2] Putnam: in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 251.
[3] Reiss and Stübel: Necropolis of Ancon, Peru, Plate 83.
[4] De Bry: Collectio Pars 2. Brevis Narratio, 1591, Plate 29.
[5] Kohl: Kitschi-Gami, vol. I, p. 186, Rau, trans.
[6] Cabeça de Vaca: Relation et Naufrages. Paris, 1837, p. 121. Spanish ed., 1555.
[7] Rau, in Smithsonian Report for 1872, p. 376.
[8] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 233.
[9] Jones: Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee, p. 59.
[10] Ibid., p. 60.
[11] Ibid., p. 45.
[12] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 355.
[13] Wyman, in Third Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 7.
[14] Wyman, in Third Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 8.
[15] Foster: Prehistoric Races of the United States, p. 78.
[16] Since the shell here named is quite small it is probable that the specimens found were Busycons.
[17] Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. I, p. 361.
[18] Atwater, in Transactions American Antiquarian Society, Vol. I.
[19] Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, p. 283.
[20] Ibid., p. 284.
[21] Farquharson, in Proceedings of the Am. Association, 1875, page 296.
[22] Ibid., p. 297.
[23] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 235.
[24] I am indebted to Dr. Charles A. White, of the Geological Survey, for the identification of the numerous specimens of Unionidæ mentioned in this paper.
[25] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, 1879.
[26] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 334.
[27] Ibid., p. 344.
[28] Jones: Antiquities of Tennessee, p. 64.
[29] Beverly: History of Virginia, 1722, pl. 10, p. 154.
[30] Strachey, in Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. VI, p. 52.
[31] Ibid., vol. VII, p. 67.
[32] Kalm's Travels, London, 1772, vol. I, p. 341.
[33] Collections New York Historical Society, vol. I, 2nd series, p. 198.
[34] Beverly: History of Virginia, 1722, p. 197.
[35] Drake, in Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. XVI, p. 74.
[36] Ibid., p. 78.
[37] Sproat's Savage Life, p. 86.
[38] De Bry: Collectio Pars 1. "Admiranda Narratio," Plate 12.
[39] Catlin: Indians of the Rocky Mountains and Andes, page 101.
[40] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 102.
[41] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio, Part I, p. 17.
[42] Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. VII, p. 193.
[43] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 87.
[44] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 106.
[45] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society, part II, p. 38, fig. 31.
[46] Putnam, in Explorations West of the 100th Meridian, vol. VII, p. 223.
[47] Cook: Voyage Around the World, 1770, vol. II, p. 218.
[48] Rau: Archæological Collection of the National Museum, page 67.
[49] Knight: Savage Weapons at the Centennial Exhibition, page 10.
[50] Wyman: American Naturalist for October, 1878, p. 453.
[51] Adair: History of the American Indians, p. 6.
[52] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 140.
[53] Heckewelder's Indian Nations, p. 205.
[54] Reiss and Stübel: Necropolis of Ancon, Plate 83, fig. 17–1/2.
[55] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 234, 518.
[56] Wyman, in the American Naturalist, November, 1868, Plate X, p. 455.
[57] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 230.
[58] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 259.
[59] Perkins, on An Ancient Burial-Ground in Swanton, Vt., Proceedings of the American Association, 1873.
[60] Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, p. 232.
[61] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 266.
[62] Schoolcraft: History of the Indian Tribes, Vol. III, p. 79, Plate 25.
[63] Schoolcraft: Notes on the Iroquois, p. 233.
[64] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 145, Plate VI.
[A] Schoolcraft: Notes on Iroquois, p. 233.
[B] From sketch by Mr. Beauchamp.
[65] Haldeman, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 263.
[66] Atwater: Western Antiquities, p. 86. In the early days of mound exploration shell was usually mistaken for bone or ivory.
[67] Kip: Jesuit Missions, p. 25.
[68] Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1794, Vol. III, pp. 231, 232.
[69] Worsley: A View of the American Indians, p. 65.
[70] Collections of the New York Historical Society, 1841; vol. I, 2nd Series, p. 194.
[71] Thought to be raccoon skins.
[72] Smith: True Relation of Virginia, pp. 33, 34.
[73] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 74.
[74] Du Pratz: History of Louisiana, p. 364.
[75] Lewis and Clark: Expedition up the Missouri, &c., p. 537.
[76] Harmon's Journal, p. 287.
[77] Swan: The Northwest Coast, p. 158.
[78] Powers: Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. III, p. 263.
[79] Drake: Book of Indians, p. 27.
[80] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the New York State Cabinet of Natural History, pp. 71, 73.
[81] Loskiel: Mission of the United Brethren, Latrobe trans., p. 34.
[82] Hutchinson: History of Mass., Vol. I, p. 406.
[83] Thomas Morton, in Historical Tracts, Vol. II, p. 29.
[84] Williams: A Key into the Language of America, p. 144.
[85] Penna: Historical Society, Vol. III, p. 131.
[86] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 195.
[87] Lawson: History of North Carolina; Raleigh reprint, 1860, p. 315.
[88] On this point, however, the author quoted is apparently at fault, as there is abundance of proof that the whites often engaged successfully in the manufacture of this shell money.
[89] Adair: History of the American Indians, p. 170.
[90] Kalm's Travels, London, 1772, Vol. II, p. 100.
[91] Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 190, 191.
[92] Ruttenber: Indian Tribes of the Hudson River, p. 26.
[93] Lewis and Clark: Expedition up the Missouri, p. 73.
[94] Ruttenber: Indian Tribes of the Hudson River, page 43.
[95] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the condition of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History, page 73.
[96] Brice: History of Fort Wayne, 1868, page 28.
[97] Events in Indian History, Lancaster, Pa., 1841, page 143.
[98] History and description of New France, Vol. II, page 256.
[99] Penn, in Memoirs Hist. Soc. Penn'a, Vol. VI, p. 222.
[100] In order to make the authors meaning quite clear, a free translation has been given of such words as porcelaine, branches, colliers, etc., as his use of them is somewhat confusing.
[101] Lafitau: Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, 1724, tom. II, pp. 502–'3 and 506–'7.
[102] Loskiel: Missions of the United Brethren. Trans. by La Trobe, Book I, p. 26.
[103] Brice: History of Fort Wayne, p. 118.
[104] Gilpin, in Memoirs of the Hist. Soc. of Penna. Vol. VI, p. 248.
[105] Heckewelder: Indian Nations, 1876, p. 110.
[106] Parkman: Jesuits in North America, p. xxxiii.
[107] Events in Indian History, Lancaster, Pa., 1841, p. 143.
[108] Hunter: Indian Manners and Customs, p. 192.
[109] Gumilla: Histoire de Orinoque, Vol. III, p. 91.
[110] Molina: History of Chili, Vol. I, p. 119.
[111] From an original sketch by Mr. Beauchamp.
[112] Pike: Travels through the Western Territories of N. A., 1805–'7, p. 103.
[113] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the Condition of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History, 1852, p. 72.
[114] Morgan: League of the Iroquois, p. 387.
[115] Heckewelder: Indian Nations, 1876, pp. 108–'9–'10.
[116] Beatty: Journal of Two Months Tour, 1768, p. 67.
[117] Loskiel: Missions of the United Brethren. Trans, by La Trobe, 1794. Book I, p. 26.
[118] Lafitau: Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, Tome II, p. 314.
[119] Mr. Beauchamp has published many interesting facts in regard to these belts in the American Antiquarian, Vol. II, No. 3.
[120] Present chief of the Onondagas.
[121] The proceedings attending the presentation are fully recorded in the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, volume iii, page 207. A full size lithographic illustration of the belt printed in color is also given.
[122] Clavigero: History of Mexico, Trans. by Cullen, vol. I, p. 437.
[123] Davis: Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, p. 121.
[124] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 196.
[125] Lafitau: Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, p. 61.
[126] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 74.
[127] Kalm: Travels in North America, 1772, vol. ii, p. 320.
[128] Vide Kingsborough, Waldeck, Bancroft, &c.
[129] Schoolcraft, in Trans. Am. Eth. Soc., Vol. II, Plate 1.
[130] Tomlinson, in The American Pioneer, Vol. II, p. 200.
[131] Matson, in Ohio Centennial Report, p. 131.
[132] Schoolcraft: History of the Indian Tribes, &c., part I, plate XIX.
[133] The ossuaries here mentioned are in the township of Beverly, twenty miles from Dundas, at the head of Lake Ontario. They are situated in a primitive forest, and were discovered upwards of thirty years ago through the uprooting of a tree. Large numbers of skeletons had been deposited longitudinally in trenches, with many implements, utensils, and ornaments. Two brass kettles were found in one of the graves. (Schoolcraft: Red Races of America, p. 326.)
[134] Rau: Archæological Collection of the National Museum, p. 33.
[135] The handsome illustrations presented in the accompanying plates were mostly drawn by Miss Kate C. Osgood, who has no superior in this class of work.
[136] Jones: Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee, pp. 42–3.
[137] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 373–5.
[138] Anderson, in the Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Science, October, 1875, p. 378.
[139] Abbott: Primitive Industry, pp. 70, 72, and 73.
[140] Ibid., p. 207.
[141] Since this paragraph has been in type I have seen the specimen, and find that the looped figure is clearly defined.
[142] Kingsborough: vol. II, Plate 20.
[143] Let any one who thinks lightly of such a work undertake, without machinery or well-adapted appliances, to cut a groove or notch even, in a moderately compact specimen of Busycon, and he will probably increase his good opinion of the skill and patience of the ancient workman if he does nothing else.
[144] E. G. Squier: Serpent Symbol, page 69, quoting MSS. of J. H. Payne.
[145] I am very much indebted to Prof. F. F. Hilder, of Saint Louis, for photographs of three of these specimens as well as for much information in regard to their history.
[146] Croswell, in Transactions Academy of Science of Saint Louis, vol. III, p. 537.
[147] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indian, plate XXX.
[148] Archæological Collection of the National Museum, p. 69.
[149] Squier: Peru, p. 186.
[150] Bancroft: Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. IV., p. 37.
[151] Carr, in Tenth Annual Report Peabody Museum, p. 87.
[152] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 430.
[153] Schoolcraft: Notes on the Iroquois, p. 235.
[154] Kingsborough, Vol. III, pl. 22.
INDEX.
Abbott, C. C., describes bird totems 284
Adair, James, describes shell tweezers 212
Adair, James, on use of shell money 237
Agricultural implements. (See Implements.)
Amiantis shells, Manufacture of beads from 226
Art, Antiquity of shell works of 187
Art, Burial of shell works of 187
Art, Evolution of 185, 192, 202, 210, 213, 225
Art, Inception of 186
Art, Materials employed in 185, 188
Art, Preservation of shell works of 186
Asphaltum used by California Indians 191, 209, 218
Atwater, Caleb, describes shell necklace 231
Atwater, Caleb, describes shell vessel 197
Beads of other materials 219, 232, 235
Beads of shell 219
Beads, Classification of 219
Beads discoidal in form 221
Beads, Kinds of, used in belts 247
Beads, Manner of stringing 234, 236, 244, 248
Beads, Manufacture of 236
Beads, Manufacture of, by whites 238
Beads massive in form 223
Beads, Mnemonic use of 240, 254
Beads or "Runtees" 228
Beads, Perforated 219
Beads tubular in form 226
Beads used as money 219, 233
Beads used as ornaments 219, 230, 234
Beatty, Charles, describes wampum belts 250
Beauchamp, W. M., Beads sketched by 228
Beauchamp, W. M., on belts of wampum 252
Beauchamp, W. M., on strings of wampum 248
Belts, wampum, Character of the patterns woven into 240, 246, 248
Belts, wampum, Dimensions of 250, 253
Belts, wampum, Keeper of the Iroquois 241, 244
Belts, wampum made by Indian women 249
Belts, wampum, Manufacture of 248
Belts, wampum, Method of handling, in councils 241, 246
Belts, wampum, Number of beads in 233, 251
Belts, wampum, Profuse use of 242
Belts, wampum, Rarity of, in collections 249
Belts, wampum; the Penn belt 253
Belts, wampum, Use of, as mnemonic records 240, 254
Belts, wampum, W. A. Brice on use and repudiation of 242, 246
Beverly, R., describes shell beads 229
Beverly, R., describes shell money 237
Beverly, R., describes shell pendants 256
Beverly, R., describes shell spoon 201
Beverly, R., mentions shell knives 202
Beverly, R., mentions shell tweezers 212
Bird; carving of eagle's head 285
Bird, Embodiment of the, in art 280
Bird engraved on bone 284
Bird engraved on stone 284
Bird engraved on shell gorgets 280
Bird, Examples of the, engraved on shell gorgets 281
Bird, Gold ornament representing head of 285
Bird, Myths of the 280
Bird, Significant character of the, in engraved designs 281, 284
Bird, Species of, represented 282, 284
Bird, Superstitions in regard to the 280
Bird, The Dakotas' thunder 281
Bird, Totemic use of the 284
Bourke, Lieut. John G., on Moqui shell vessels 193
Bowers, Stephen, Shell objects collected by 209, 226
Brakebill mound 215, 275, 292, 296
Brice, W. A., on repudiation of wampum 246
Brice, W. A., on use of wampum belts 242
Brinton, D. G., on the origin of the cross 270
Busycon shells, Columellæ of, used as pendants 209, 258
Busycon shells, Columellæ of, used as pins 213
Busycon shells, Gorgets derived from 273, 276, 282, 290, 292, 294, 296
Busycon shells, Pendants derived from 209, 259
Busycon shells, Perforated plates derived from 265
Busycon shells used as beads 220, 224
Busycon shells used as celts 204
Busycon shells used as vessels 194, 197
Busycon shells used as weapons 211
Busycon shells used in the arts 191
Cabeça de Vaca on trade in shells 194
Cabrillo, João, visits Island of Santa Rosa 260
Calendars, Pictographic symbols of the Sioux 279
Calendars, Probable use of shell disks as 268, 273, 278
Calendars used by ancient Mexicans 279
Calendars used by modern tribes 279
Carr, Lucien, describes shell gorget 295
Cassis shells used as vessels 191, 194, 196
Catlin, George, describes shell adze 205
Celts, Examples of 203
Celts, Manufacture of 203
Celts of shell 203, 205
Clam shells used as implements 190, 205, 207
Clam shells used as utensils 190
Clam shells used in manufacture of ornaments 263
Clam shells used in manufacture of wampum 190, 226, 238, 257
Clark, J. S., Photographs made by 252
Clavigero, F. X., on use of shell ornaments 256
Clavigero, F. X., on use of shell vessels in Mexico 193
Cleveland, F., describes shell vessels 197
Columellæ, Manner of extracting, from shell 214
Columellæ used in manufacture of heads 219, 223
Columellæ used in manufacture of pins 213, 218
Conant, A. J., describes shell gorgets 300
Conant, A. J., mentions shell gorgets 287
Cross design associated with others 270
Cross design combined with spider design 288
Cross design in Aztec paintings 285
Cross design engraved on shell gorgets 268
Cross design, Evolution or derivation of the 270
Cross design, Examples of the, combined with birds 282, 283
Cross design, Examples of the, from mounds 271, 273
Cross design, Introduction of the Christian 269
Cross design, Occurrence of the, in ancient Mexican art 270
Cross design, Occurrence of the, in Yucatan 270
Cross, Origin of the, among mound builders 269
Cross, Prehistoric use of the, in America 268, 270
Cross, Symbolic character of the 269
Croswell, C., describes shell gorgets 286
Curtis, Dr., Shell gorgets collected by 283
Cyprea shells used as beads 219
Cyprea shells used as ornaments 263
Dall, W. H., use of pins 217
Dall, W. H., Shells identified by 190
Davis, W. H. H., mentions shell pendants 256
Dentalium shells used for money 191, 220, 227, 239
Dentalium shells used for ornament 191, 218, 220, 227
Dentalium shells used in bushing 218, 227
Disks, Scalloped, probably time symbols 273
Disks, Scalloped, Relation of, to human remains 276
Disks, Scalloped shell, from mounds 275, 278
Disks, Scalloped, Shell gorgets in the shape of 268, 273, 279
Disks, Scalloped stone 277
Disks, Scalloped stone with engravings of knotted serpents 278
Disks, Scalloped, Table of 280
Disks, Scalloped, The sun suggested by 273
Disks, Scalloped, Type example of 273
Disks, Scalloped; use of sun symbols of similar shape 273
Drake, Daniel, describes shell vessel 197
Dunning, E. O., Shell ornaments collected by 272
Dunning, E. O., Shell pins collected by 215
Ely mound in Virginia 295
Engraved gorgets. (See Gorgets.)
Face, Human, Description of shell gorgets representing the 294
Face, Human engraved and carved on shell gorgets 293, 297
Face, Human modeled in clay 296
Face, Human, Portions of shell used for representing 293
Face, Human, Use or significance of shell gorgets representing 295
Fain's Island mound 215, 272, 288
Farquharson, B. J., describes shell vessel 197
Fasciolaria shells, Columellæ of, used for pins 213
Fasciolaria shells used as vessels 194
Figure, Human. (See Human figure.)
Fishing appliances, Shell 207
Fishing appliances, Shell; hooks 208
Fishing appliances, Shell, Manufacture of 210
Fishing appliances, Shell; sinkers 208
Fissurella shells used as ornaments 191, 220, 261, 263
Frey, S. L., describes shell vessel 198
Gilpin, H. D., on the use of wampum belts 246
Gorgets, Engraved, Classification of 267
Gorgets, Engraved design on, character of 267
Gorgets, Engraved described by Beverly 256
Gorgets, Engraved, Modern examples of 268
Gorgets, Engraved of shell 267, 305
Gorgets, Engraved, Significance of designs on 267, 274, 278, 282
Gorgets, Engraved used as amulets 267
Gorgets, Engraved used as insignia 267, 273
Gorgets, Engraved used as symbols 268, 273
Gorgets, Engraved used as totems 268
Grave Creek mound 234, 264
Gray's mound, Oldtown, Tenn. 283
Gumilla, Joseph, concerning emblems in treaties 247