Ranchers of the Western plains and mountains are continually experiencing severe losses from the attacks of wolves and coyotes upon their live-stock, and to rid themselves from the nightly raids of these animals requires unceasing warfare against them with traps. But the wolf and coyote are very crafty fellows, and extremely keen-scented, so that even professional trappers have trouble in capturing them, often resorting to every scheme they can devise without success. Steel traps are generally employed by the professional, as they are less cumbersome and quicker to set than the home-made affairs. The traps are handled with gloves, as the touch of the bare hands would be instantly detected by the wary animals, and, after being placed in a circle around the bait, are covered over with leaves and brush. In order not to leave human footprints behind him, the trapper often sets them while mounted upon horseback.

Not long ago, a trapper was hired by a rancher in New Mexico to capture some Loboe wolves which had been making serious raids upon the cattle, and one of his experiences while working there was somewhat laughable, though probably not seen in that way by all the parties concerned. Using a dead calf for bait, the trapper dragged it to a selected spot, and there surrounded it by eight or ten traps, which he chained fast to stakes, and carefully hid from view. Setting out to visit the traps as usual, on the following morning, he mounted a knoll from which he could see the location of the bait, and there plainly made out that a number of his traps had been sprung and were occupied. But upon reaching the spot, his surprise and disgust can be imagined when he found a dog in one trap and a bad-tempered Indian held fast by the clutches of three others. After releasing the captives, the trapper gathered from the Indian's half-broken English that he had been riding by on the previous night, and his dog had wandered from the trail and sprung a trap. He had then dismounted to release the animal, but had not taken more than half a dozen steps before his foot became clutched in a trap, the force of which threw him forward, and, in trying to break his fall with his outstretched hands, each became securely clutched in traps. Fortunately no wolves made their appearance, and the couple were unharmed; but the Indian no doubt spent a sleepless and uncomfortable night in the position he was forced to occupy.

CHAPTER XVII

TOY GUNS, TARGETS, AND BOWS AND ARROWS

Some of the old war engines used in Europe before the introduction of gunpowder were most ingeniously contrived, and were wonderfully effective, considering that their projective force was obtained by means of springs and levers. It is hard to find many good examples, as authorities have badly confused them, but the writer has been fortunate in securing drawings of what he believes to be pure types of the most commonly used guns. These are reproduced on page 230, believing that the average boy will be interested to see the kind of weapons that were employed in warfare centuries ago. With a little study, the working of these guns will be clearly understood without further explanation than what is given upon the drawings. The catapult (Fig. 227) and the trebuchet (Fig. 228) were used for storming fortifications, and each hurled large stones. The trebuchet was a much later invented machine than the catapult, and, being built on a much larger scale, was more powerful. It is claimed that trebuchets were often built large enough to hurl carcasses of horses into an enemy's fortifications. The ballista (Fig. 229) was in reality a large cross-bow, built to shoot long, heavy bolts or arrows. The illustration shows a form mounted upon wheels for field service. The cross-bow (Fig. 230) was a weapon used by the foot-soldiers of a number of European countries. It was in use in England for some time, but, on account of the terrible wounds inflicted by its short barbed arrows, was finally forbidden and superseded by the long-bow.

Figure 231 shows a new idea for

A Cross-bow.—The stock for this should be cut out of a tongued-and-grooved board, with the groove running along the top, and a mortise should be made at A in which to set the trigger. This mortise should be about two inches long and as wide as the thickness of the board will permit, and is made by boring a couple of holes through the stock at this point, and cutting out the wood between with a chisel. Select a strong barrel-hoop for the bow, and fasten it at its centre in a hole cut for it at B, driving a nail into it at C. The trigger should be made similar to D in Fig. 232. Cut block E out of a piece of tongued board, leaving the tongue to fit the groove in the gunstock. Notch the bottom to fit over D (see Fig. 233). Place a tack in each side of the block, and run cords from them to the end of the bow. These cords must be of such a length that the bow will bend almost to its limit when block E is placed over the trigger. A heavy rubber band should be attached to the lower end of the trigger, and to a tack at F. This must be strong enough to cock the trigger.

The cross-bow will shoot either pebbles or arrows, but the latter are the most satisfactory.

Shingle Arrows are very good, as they shoot straight, and are so quickly made as to be easily replaced by a fresh lot when lost or broken. Mark them out as shown in Fig. 234, with the head at the thick edge of the shingle and the tail at the thin edge, and cut them out with your jack-knife. The head and tail are made flat on one side, so as to lie flat in the groove of the gun.

A Toy Pistol can also be made out of a tongued-and-grooved board. Some such shape as shown in Fig. 235 should first be drawn upon the board, with the groove extending along the top. Cut this out with your jack-knife, and make a mortise for the trigger. Cut the trigger similar to Fig. 236, fastening it in place with a brad driven through it at A. It will be noticed that the trigger is notched at both ends. These notches are for a rubber band, which should be stretched from the upper notch of the trigger, over the muzzle, and around to the lower notch, as shown in the drawing. The rubber band lies in the groove in the top of the pistol.

The Bullets for this pistol consist of pieces of cardboard cut into small squares. To load the pistol, slip one of the squares through the rubber band as shown in Fig. 237, so that it rests on top of the groove, as shown in Fig. 235. Upon pulling the trigger the bullet will shoot out of its position, and though naturally one might think the loop of the rubber band would catch the card, it is not the case. The card frees itself and travels in a straight line in the direction in which the pistol is aimed. It is advisable to keep this pistol out of range of your companions' faces.

A Shot-gun can be made on the same scheme as the pistol, by cutting a stock the size of that used for the cross-bow (Fig. 231), and fastening several rubber bands together to extend around the added length.

An Elastic Sling made with a wire framework, as shown in Fig. 238, is an improvement over the one made out of a tree crotch, as it is not easily broken. About No. 12 wire, which is the thickness of eight-penny nails, should be bought for this. With a pair of pincers, bend it into the shape shown in the drawing, with loops at A and B. Wrap the handle with cord, and attach strong rubber bands to A and B, with a piece of shoe leather or kid glove set in between, at C.

A most satisfactory scheme for

A Boy's Target is shown in Fig. 239. It consists of a barrel-hoop, fastened by means of staples to a wooden platform, as shown in the illustration. Pack the inside of the hoop with earth which has been moistened sufficiently to make it hold together, and place a piece of paper over it, pasting it to the edges of the hoop. The paper will be stretched as tight as a drumhead when dry. Five rings should then be painted upon it, as shown in the illustration. Fasten screw-eyes in the top of the platform, and hang the target by these wherever you wish to use it.

By preparing several sheets of paper, a fresh piece may be pasted over the hoop after one has been filled with holes. The earth will prevent the paper from splitting, and will be soft enough for the end of an arrow to stick into. Should the earth become too dry, it may be moistened each time a new paper is put in place.

A Simpler Target, and a scheme which will answer a boy's purpose, if he does not care to go to the trouble of making the hoop target, is shown in Fig. 240. A circular piece of cardboard, with five rings painted upon it, is tacked to the end of a broom-handle, and this is stuck into the ground.

Points are Scored in target shooting as follows: Bull's-eye 9 points; second ring, 7 points; third ring, 5 points; fourth ring, 3 points; fifth, or outside ring, 1 point.

The Bow and Arrow is always popular with boys who are forbidden the use of guns. Authorities claim that the best materials from which to make bows are mulberry, sassafras, Southern cedar, black locust, black walnut, apple, and slippery elm, in the order named; but if a boy selects what appears to be a good sound piece of wood, with straight grain, he has something which will suit the purpose.

The Length of the Bow should be about the height of the person using it. Figure 241 shows a five-foot bow, with the other proportions such as are on makes to be found in the stores. Cut your piece of wood five feet long, and, after placing it in the bench-vise, shape it down with a draw-knife or plane until it is one inch wide by one-half inch thick at the handle and three-quarters of an inch wide by one-quarter inch thick at the ends. The bow can be made round on the inside or face toward the archer, and flat on the outside or face away from the archer, or the two faces may be made round. Cut a notch in the bow two inches from each end, as shown in the illustration, from which to attach

The Bow-string.—A cord with as little elasticity as possible should be used for this. If you care to spend the money for it, a good cotton string can be purchased from a dealer in archery goods for twenty-five cents. With a home-made bow-string, a loop should be made in one end and bound with thread, as shown in Fig. 242. Slip the loop over the upper notch, bend the bow until the centre of the string is about five inches away from the handle, and attach the loose end to the lower notch by means of a slip-knot similar to that shown in Fig. 243. The bow should be sand-papered until smooth, and thoroughly oiled with linseed-oil. A piece of velvet about three inches wide should be glued about the centre for a handle.

For a five-foot bow, cut

The Arrow-shafts twenty-four inches long and one-quarter inch thick. Whittle them out of straight-grained strips of wood, round them nicely, and cut a notch in the ends large enough to fit over the bow-strings.

It is not supposed that boys would care

To Prepare Arrow-heads of stone or bone as the Indians did, for there are other schemes that are simpler to carry out. If the wood is reasonably hard, the heads can be cut on the ends of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 244. For target practice, a wire nail driven into the end of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 245, with the head of the nail filed off and pointed, has proven very good, and a thick piece of zinc or lead, cut the shape of A (Fig. 246) and set into a slot cut in the end of the shaft, with cord bound around the shaft to hold the metal in place, makes another excellent head. The metal points should be used only for target practice, and then with proper care, to prevent injury to yourself or companions.

A Quiver of some sort should be provided, large enough to carry a dozen or more arrows, and this should be three inches shorter than the arrows, so that their ends will project above the top. It may be made out of any thick cloth, as shown in Fig. 247. A circular piece of cardboard is placed in the bottom to which the cloth is sewed, and a piece of heavy wire, bent into a circle, fits in the top to keep the bag open. The quiver should hang on your right side, being suspended by means of a cloth strap long enough to pass over the left shoulder.

To Shoot with the bow, take the position shown in Fig. 248, with both feet flat upon the ground, and the heels in line with the target. Hold the handle of the bow in the left hand and place an arrow on the left side of the bow, slipping the bow-string into the notch and letting the head of the arrow rest upon your left hand. Catch the bow-string with the first three fingers of your right hand, so that the end of the arrow comes between the first and second fingers, and draw the string until the head of the arrow rests upon the left hand; then aim quickly and let go of the arrow. By always taking the same hold upon your bow and arrow, you will soon be able to know just where the arrow is going to strike.

The boy who has had the hobby of collecting Indian arrow-heads has no doubt often wondered how they were made, and also how the bows and arrows were prepared. The ways in which all uncivilized people do things is interesting, and especially when it is remembered that they had but raw materials with which to work and only such tools as they could make out of stone.

The Indian's Bow was made of different woods, and, though it varied in shape and size, was generally about forty inches in length, so as to be conveniently carried and handled on horseback. The bow-string consisted generally of a deer sinew or a strand of deer-skin rolled or twisted, and this was strung very tightly from a notch cut on one end of the bow to a notch on the opposite end. Now, while an Indian generally made the greater part of his weapons, there was always a warrior in the tribe who was skilled in the art of arrow-making, and, as the preparation required far more care than the bow, he was intrusted with this work. The arrow-shaft was made of various woods, reeds being often used, as they were straight and required but little cutting. Their lengths depended largely upon that of the bows.

For the feathering of the shafts, wild turkey feathers were considered best and used when they could be had, and these were attached to the shaft with deer sinews.

A great variety of materials were used for arrow-heads, among which flint, obsidian, horn of deer, claws of eagles, and the spurs of wild turkey-cocks may be mentioned. Many of these are being picked up annually in the mountains and on the plains, which were once the battle-fields and hunting-grounds of the redmen, and in excavating for building purposes they are frequently found. A few specimens of stone heads showing a variety of the shapes and sizes used will be found in Fig. 249. The preparation of these heads was usually left to the old men who were unfit for any other work.

CHAPTER XVIII

AN OUTDOOR GYMNASIUM

With a little work, and a small outlay of money chiefly for two-by-fours, and such boards as are specified in this chapter, a boy, or club of boys, can construct and set up all the necessary apparatus for an outdoor gymnasium. It is true a great many city back-yards are much too small to accommodate all of the apparatus; but there is generally a vacant lot in the neighborhood which you can obtain permission to use. Those of you boys who are fortunate enough to spend the summer months in the country have splendid opportunities for making a complete gym and should not miss the chance to fit one up.

A Horizontal Bar.—A well-made horizontal bar requires a firm standard which will not sway when swung upon. This is best attained by fastening at least one upright to the side of the barn, the fence, or some other stationary object. It is also very important to secure a strong bar free from knots and cracks. Curtain-poles are frequently used by boys, but at great risk, as there may be a dangerous knot lurking beneath the highly polished surface that will break at a critical moment and cause them serious injuries.

A four-foot hickory or ash bar can be bought from a dealer in sporting goods for about a dollar and a half, but it will cost much less to have a bar turned to the right shape and size at a planing mill. The diameter of the pole should be an inch and one-half, and the ends should be two inches square (see Fig. 250).

For the uprights procure two two-by-sixes nine feet long. Mark off a square equal in size to the end of the bar, six inches from one end of each, and cut out the wood with an auger. With a chisel trim the holes square and large enough for the bar to slip through.

Sink the lower ends of the uprights twelve inches into the ground, A against the stationary object, whatever it may be, and B directly in front, at a distance equal to the length of the bar. Spike A to the abutting surface, and brace the base of B with two two-by-fours to make it solid (see Fig. 251). The tops of the braces should be mitred against B, and the bottoms spiked to stakes driven into the ground, as shown at C. To make it possible to adjust the bar to different heights, holes may be cut in the uprights every foot or so, in which case be careful to locate the holes exactly opposite one another.

It is well to have an old mattress beneath the horizontal bar as a guard against injury in case of a fall. This also makes a splendid

Tumbling Mat for practising rolls, hand-springs, and wrestling. If a mattress cannot be obtained, a few potato sacks stuffed with shavings or excelsior will answer the purpose.

The most satisfactory scheme for making a pair of

Parallel Bars is shown in Fig. 252. To acquire the necessary firmness without putting in bracing that would interfere with the performer, the base of the apparatus should be set underground, as indicated by the dotted lines in the illustration.

In height the parallel bars should be about four feet six inches, in length seven feet six inches, and in width twenty inches between the bars. This makes the uprights A, B, C, and D six feet long, allowing eighteen inches to project into the ground. Prepare one end of each as shown in Fig. 253, notching it for the bar to fit in and cutting off the corner.

When this has been done, cut four two-by-fours twenty-eight inches long. Then lay the uprights A and B on the ground twenty inches apart, and spike two of the two-by-fours to them at G and H (see Fig. 254). Uprights C and D should be similarly fastened together with the other two-by-fours at I and J (see Fig. 252). When these frames have been made, set them upon their bases six feet apart, and spike the two-by-fours K and L to the uprights in the places shown in Fig. 252, with braces set between them and the pieces H and J, at M, N, O, P (see Figs. 252 and 255).

The bars should be seven feet six inches in length, and cut out of Georgia pine two-by-fours. Figures 252 and 256 show how these should be dressed, the tops rounded to fit the hands and the ends curved. First roughly shape them with the draw-knife, then smooth up with the plane, and finally scrape and rub them down with sand-paper until perfectly smooth. When the bars have been prepared, slip them into the notches cut in the uprights, and spike them in place.

With the constructive work done, it is only necessary to bury the base to complete the apparatus. Excavate a trench eighteen inches deep, and level off the bottom. Then lower the framework and, after determining that the bars are level, fill in the earth, packing it well against the uprights and braces. Boards E and F should be laid across the top of G and I, and spiked in place.

The Punching-bag Platform, illustrated by Fig. 257, should be made thirty inches square and suspended from the shed or a wall.

Nail a thirty-inch piece of two-by-four to the wall, two feet above the height at which the platform is to be placed, as at A in the drawing, and nail another on a level with the top of the platform, as shown at B.

Fasten the platform boards together with battens, using nails long enough to clinch on top of the upper face, and nail the two boards C and D to the edges, mitring the edges as in the figure. Then lift the platform to the desired height, and fasten the ends of C and D to the ends of A. Also nail the bottom of the platform to the under side of B.

A swivel such as shown in Fig. 258 can be bought for forty or fifty cents, and one of these should be screwed to the bottom of the platform, from which to suspend the punching-bag.

A Pair of Jump Standards are made out of two two-by-fours about eight feet long. After planing them smooth on all sides, measure off two feet from one end of each, and mark off the remaining six feet in inches, as shown in Fig. 259.

After squaring these divisions across the poles with your try-square, bore holes three-eighths of an inch in diameter through the poles at each division. Then, with a small brush and black paint, mark off each foot with a band extending around the pole, each half foot with a narrower band, and each inch with a short line, as shown in the drawings. Letter the foot divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

When both standards have been finished, bury them in the ground to a depth of thirteen inches, eight feet apart. Cut two wooden pegs similar to Fig. 261 to fit the holes, and procure a nine-foot pine or hickory pole one inch thick for a cross-bar (see Fig. 260). When the bar is placed upon the pegs, the distance from its top to the ground should correspond with the figure on the upright. If not the same, raise or lower the uprights until the error is corrected.

With a pair of these standards there is no danger of injury by tripping over the bar, as the latter will fall off with the slightest knock. There is one disadvantage in using a stick, however, it being easily broken if jumped upon. Because of this, a rope with a weight attached to each end, as shown in Fig. 262 is often substituted. The ends of the rope are hung over the pegs in such a way that it will slip off the pegs when struck. The weights should be just heavy enough to prevent the rope from sagging in the centre.

A Vaulting Pole should be made of a strong wood, free from knots and other defects. The regulation pole is made of selected spruce, its length varying from eight to fourteen feet. If you make your own pole, be careful to plane off all splinters and irregularities, making it round and smooth, and point one end so it will stick into the ground and prevent slipping.

Although seldom used in an outdoor gymnasium,

A Spring-board is excellent for practising the high and broad jumps, and is a piece of apparatus with which a great deal of fun may be had. Figure 263 shows a scheme for a spring-board that is easy to make. First cut three pieces of two-by-four two feet long, lay them on the ground parallel to each other eighteen inches apart, and construct a platform four feet long by two feet wide on top of them.

Cut another two-by-four two feet long, taper it as shown in Fig. 264, making it two inches thick on one edge and an inch and a quarter on the other, and nail it to one end of the platform. Secure a log two feet long (a cedar fence post will do very nicely), and fasten it across the centre of the platform parallel to the two-by-fours. The upper portion of the spring-board should be made of elastic boards, preferably ash. Construct a second platform six inches longer than the first, leaving about one-half inch between the boards, and battening the pieces together at A and B (see Fig. 263). Nail the battens securely in place, using nails of sufficient length to allow clinching on the under face of the battens. The clinching will prevent the boards from springing apart.

This platform should be fastened to the first, with the end which has not been battened secured to the two-by-four at C. The best method of fastening the ends of these boards is with bolts long enough to extend through the two platforms and project an inch or more below the bottom two-by-four (see illustration). Large washers should be placed under the heads of the bolts to prevent the latter from cutting through the boards.

The upper platform should not be nailed to the log, but merely held to it by straps passed diagonally around the outside boards and log, as shown in the illustration.

Set the spring-board upon the spot you wish to use it, and bank up the earth behind it until a gradual slope is made from the ground to the top.

If any difficulty is experienced in keeping the spring-board in place, it may be overcome by driving stakes into the ground around the sides of the lower platform.

After setting up your gymnasium apparatus, oil the bars of the horizontal bar and parallel bars with boiled linseed-oil, and paint all the rest of the wood to keep it in good condition.

Hurdles should be lightly constructed, so as to be easily knocked over should a hurdler trip upon them. They are made similar to carpenter horses, directions for the making of which are given in Chapter I. Their height will depend upon the skill of the hurdler.

If the field is large enough,

A Running Track can be made around it, by levelling off the ground, removing all stones and irregularities in its path, and banking up the corners to enable the runner to turn the curves readily.

For Short Sprints the most common method of starting is upon all fours, as illustrated in Fig. 265. Make a depression in the ground for the toe of the rear foot to press against in starting off.

For Broad Jumping, a block of wood two feet long should be sunk into the ground, as a mark from which to leap.

It is a good plan to organize

An Athletic Club among the boys of the neighborhood with which to raise money necessary to buy the material for apparatus, and

Athletic Meets may be held among the members and with other clubs.

CHAPTER XIX

A BACK-YARD CIRCUS

Shortly after the founding of Rome, a large building was built within which to hold commemorations of Roman victories and anniversaries, with chariot races, bull-fights, gladiatorial contests, and athletic games; and from this building, which was called the "circus," this class of entertainment derived its name.

To keep up with the times, the circus has had to profit by every scientific discovery, adding continuously to its line of attractions, until now it is necessary for a show to produce a new, sensational, and hair-raising feat each season in order to keep in the favor of the public and compete with others in the field. The tight-rope walkers, bare-back riders, and trapeze performers were not long ago the main attractions of a circus, but these do not seem nearly as remarkable now when compared with such daring feats as looping-the-loop or looping-the-gap on a bicycle, riding down an incline on a single wheel, or diving from the peak of the tent into a small tank not more than six feet square, to be seen at the present day.

When a circus came to town, it seemed but natural for the boys of our neighborhood to club together and arrange a performance on a small scale, but as nearly like that of the professionals as possible. A back-yard was transformed into training quarters, and here we worked hard for several days before the show, imitating as best we could the stunts of the circus performers. Because one fellow could walk on his hands, and turn hand-springs, besides being the owner of a pair of tights, he naturally became the chief attraction; another had a pair of riding boots, so he was chosen ring master; a third made a bargain with his sister to cut him out a cheese-cloth costume, and was chosen to take the part of a clown,—and in this way each boy helped along the performance by contributing his best efforts.

The most successful shows were those in which a week or more was spent in rehearsing the performance and getting things in shape. Tickets and programmes were neatly printed by one of the members who owned a press, and the former were distributed among the boys and their friends to sell.

The first thing to do in preparing a yard for a circus, is to

Mark out a Ring in the centre, with a diameter as large as the yard will permit. This circle may be drawn on the same principle as that shown in Fig. 201, Chapter XV, using a rope at either end of which a stake has been attached. After describing the circle, secure several six-inch boards sufficiently limber to enable you to bend them around the circle, and fasten them in place by means of stakes driven into the ground outside of the boards. The enclosed space should then be filled in with several inches of shavings, which you can procure from a carpenter if you have not enough in your own workshop.

Good Circus Seats can be made out of boxes eighteen or twenty inches high, with planks laid across their tops.

To give the back-yard a real circus appearance, we always thought it necessary not only to have a ring but also a tent over it and the grandstand, so we gathered together all the old awnings, tents, and carriage covers we could scrape up, and fastening these together with pins or heavy thread made

A Large Tent.—A ten-foot pole was sunk into the ground in the centre of the ring, and ropes were run from the top of this to the fence, after which the tent was fastened to the ropes and propped with poles wherever any sagging occurred.

Bright colored cheese-cloth was used

In decorating the Tent, and for evening performances Japanese lanterns were hung about the yard.