The Tile Frame.—In building tiles a frame is used measuring about 6 inches square by 5⁄8 of an inch thick. The strips forming the frame may be 1 inch wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that, if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is moist. This frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides, working toward the centre, until the frame is completely filled. It is then turned over in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly welded together. Care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame, scraping off the surplus clay with a straight edge. While the clay is moist, one side is chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to prevent warping. The hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the top of Plate XIV, or it may be in the shape of channels 3⁄4 of an inch or more in width, separated by ridges 1⁄2 of an inch wide running across the back of the tile. Whichever method is used, the depth should be about 3⁄16 of an inch and not over 1⁄4 of an inch. Even when the utmost precaution is taken, the tile is very liable to warp. It should therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of exposure on both sides. The greatest help of all is found in the use of the so-called "grog." This is made by grinding to a powder clay that has been fired once and shrunk, but not glazed. It is used by mixing it with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of one part grog to three of the clay. It may be added here that grog will be found of great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware. It will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the express purpose of making grog. The occasional failures which develop at the first firing of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply.
Decoration.—When the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be easily taken from the frame, but it should be allowed to get quite stiff before decoration is applied. While the hardening process is going on the decoration may be studied. The three general methods of decoration considered under the flower bowl—viz., the sunken line, the modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze or over-glaze—are all available for use with the tile. If it is to be a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable caution, otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to rest upon.
Firing.—In giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand it on one edge in the kiln, but not on the floor of the kiln, as the intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more than the others. It may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed on one of the shelves. For the glaze firing the tile should be placed flat on the stilt.
Tea Tiles.—The tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of Plate XIV were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot, a bowl, or a vase. It will be noticed that the centre is left free with one exception, which is given as an interesting variation from the general rule. The free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon. In the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true. Emphasis should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design.
Fireplace Tiles.—Some of the tiles illustrated in Plate XIV would be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a fireplace. This is especially true of the middle design shown at the top of the plate, on account of the lines which project through the corner design nearly to the edges of the tile. This makes it especially adapted to repetition in a facing or border.
Decoration of Tiles.—It is in the field of painted decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities in fireplace tile designs are found. The framed tile illustrated in Plate XV opposite—an example of over-glaze painting—is intended for use as a colour accent for the wall. This tile is painted in matt glaze between raised outlines. Three similar tiles are illustrated in the middle row in Plate XIV. The right-hand one, like the framed tile of Plate XV, is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead of being raised was slightly depressed. The other two are examples of under-glaze painting. They were painted on moist clay, as described in the problem of the bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze. In this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding richness to the colour scheme. The repetition in a tile facing of landscapes, designed to be complete or nearly so, would be tiresome. It is better so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of very simple landscape motifs, each fairly complete in itself, but all so related to each other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat conventionalized, landscape. A treatment of this kind lends itself to many other decorative schemes.
The fireplace offers a great opportunity for design, not only in itself, but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which it is placed. It should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the focal centre of the room. This fact, together with its comparatively small size, makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of colour, accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room. Tiles, properly designed and applied, offer a rich and varied field for charming effects in colour and texture.
To become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not a matter of choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his craftsmanship—Hamilton Wright Mabie
Leather work, like weaving and pottery, is of very ancient origin. The New Testament text concerning "new wine in old bottles" referred to bottles of leather, or wine skins. We read of leather as having been used in still earlier times for shields, saddles, harnesses, parts of chariots, and as an accessory to clothing. In the middle ages the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined to the shoemakers' useful productions but included much ornamental work. There were wall coverings of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or stamped with hot tools; seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled leather. Some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt figures like the celebrated Spanish leather.
Why Leather is Suited to Decoration.—Leather seems, therefore, to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to decoration. Its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its natural colour, the ease with which it takes dyes, and the readiness with which under proper treatment, it receives and retains the marks of the modelling tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses.
Limited Decoration Desirable.—The tooling of leather is based upon the fact that, when wet, the fibre yields readily to compression and receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry. But the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it. It is therefore a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost. The decorations should be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined to a small part of the surface. Calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling. They are supplied in two general forms, viz., the smooth, generally as Russia calf, and the rough or split cowhides, known as ooze. Leather may be stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since the natural colour of leather is brown, brownish tones are more satisfactory than the blues, greens, violets, grays, etc., because they seem more sincere.
Tools.—The simple tools required for tooling leather may be purchased at small cost, or they may be made from cheap nut picks by filing these to shape, polishing them, and buffing them. The illustrations show two different tools, each double pointed. A and B are different views of the first tool; C is the second tool. The narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into corners. The broad, flat end is for smoothing down and for general use; the broad tool should be used whenever possible. The round point on the left end of C is used for outlining and transfering the design to leather. The right hand end of C is known as the background tool. It is cupped out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise section just above and by the end view at the extreme right; in fact, a nail set may be used for the same purpose. The background tool, however, is to be used sparingly. If used to excess, especially on large surfaces, the result is likely to have a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance.
The sizes given in the illustration on page 325 are typical, but it is expected that in this and other problems, dimensions will be varied to suit conditions. When the size has been determined the leather should be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be, to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle. The strip of leather should be thoroughly soaked in cold water and then rolled in dry cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling. It is essential that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture. If on applying the tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still too wet. If it should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on the back. There is danger of water stains, however, if the entire back is not wet.
The Design.—The illustration shows two treatments. An interlaced pattern is shown in A which concentrates the interest at the ends and in the middle of the back. The pattern shown is tooled solid and the background is left untooled. If the pattern be tooled in outline it is well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give relief to the interlaced bands.
Modelled natural forms are shown in B. In this the background is tooled down, but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised forms. This gives the background a richer appearance than it has when tooled absolutely flat. Both patterns here shown are straight with parallel sides. Other shapes are possible—for example, those wider in the middle and tapering toward the ends.
When a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is transferred to thin bond paper. The greatest care should be taken not to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they leave a dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove. It may be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil.
The Process.—As soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain the marks, the pattern should be placed upon it, pencilled side up, allowance being made for trimming to the desired width. The paper may be held in position by thumb tacks, which must not, however, pass through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off. The pattern may now be traced through the paper, over the lines of the drawing, with the round pointed tool. Care will have to be exercised to make sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather. When this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines, which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather, should be immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool.
The next step is to tool down the design; and in doing this the work should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the work, in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge of the pattern farthest from the hand. This not only insures a correct and convenient position of the tool, but allows a perfect view of the work. In this part of the process the broad tool should be used, moved sidewise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying cut. In working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if necessary. The movement may be described as "ironing the leather down." The surface should not be roughed up or cut up into "shoulders." It is a process requiring time. One should not try to get the full depth with the first pressure of the tool. One should coax the surface and add pressure with each succeeding stroke, taking care that the tool does not scrape. It should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble scratching and patting. A firm, even gliding pressure does the work. As the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a dark, glossy surface. When the process is completed the belt may be trimmed down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a straight edge wherever straight lines are desired.
The Design and the Process.—The purpose for which a mat is used requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain surface in the middle. If the general form be square the design at the corners should be strengthened. If circular, the design should be so arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle rather than weaken them. In the three outlines given below, C shows a form supporting the circle; D and E show forms tending to weaken the circle. Conditions determining size are more variable in this problem than in others, because of the great variety of uses which a mat may serve. In a design like that shown in A of the accompanying illustration, the portions left untooled—i. e., the leaves and fruit—may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the back by means of a tool. To do this the leather should be placed face down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax, which has been covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin. Then by gently forcing the leather down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt end of a nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained. After this is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct the modelling. In order to preserve the higher relief it is well to back it up with cotton batting, soaked in paste, and finally to cover the entire back with a lining of silk or leather.
A pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this case must be made of leather suitable for tooling, and several leaves of soft material like sheepskin or chamois, which should match the cover in colour. The process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that already employed in the foregoing problems. It should, of course, be carried through to completion before the book is made up. These parts are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same colour.
The series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming the knot, which should finally take the shape of Figure 5. After it has been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover and leaves of the pen wiper, and secured by a second knot formed on the back, resembling Figure 4 with the ends cut as close as will leave them securely tied.
Another illustration gives two suggestions for the design: A, a rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end; B, a circular pen wiper tied with one knot in the middle. In these designs, and indeed in all others, decoration should recognize (not antagonize!) the outer form of the article to which it is applied. This point is made in the illustration.
Planning the Cover.—The object in this problem is to make a permanent protection for fillers. It is well known that the fillers themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat pocket note-book. It is evident that the dimensions of the filler determine the size of the cover; but, in planning the cover, care should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width, length, and thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done. This means that the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than called for in the final size. The design illustrated shows both the outside (A) and the inside (B) of the cover. As it is planned the cover is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour; but this may be left out if desired, though it, of course, gives a much better finish to put it in.
Assembling the Parts.—The first step after cutting out the leather for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it, if it is to have any decoration. A piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and the edge (C) shaped. The edges of the lining and the pocket should next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover. A line is then to be ruled with a leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to serve as a guide for stitching. A machine stitch may be employed or it may be done by hand. If by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce the leather at equal distances along the tooled line. Hand stitches may safely be a little longer than the machine stitches.
Stitching.—A good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the required distance. A more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is possible by making use of a tracing wheel, if one is available of suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth. The hand stitching may be done either with one needle or with two. If with one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then return, covering the alternate spaces left on the first round. It is better, however, to use two needles, one on each end of one thread, selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it, and to proceed as illustrated in A and B, i. e., to draw one needle with its thread through to the middle of the thread, as shown in A, and then the other through the next hole, and so on alternately from opposite directions, producing a stitch like that illustrated in B. It will, of course, be understood that, in the illustration, the length of the stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly.
Trimming and Finishing.—When the sewing is finished the thread is fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the ends inside between the cover and lining. Then a line should be tooled on the cover about 1⁄16 of an inch outside of the stitching, and on this line the cover, lining and pocket are trimmed together. The raw edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish. Finally the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather.
The Design.—The problem of design in this case is, first of all, to determine the dimensions of the pad, which depend, of course, upon the use to be made of it. Then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in outline, including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the drawing (A). The only detail that will need elaboration is the corner. The shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully laid out on thin paper, from which in due time it may be transferred to the leather and tooled as in other problems.
Material and the Process.—For making the pad it will be necessary to secure a piece of binders' board—i. e., heavy pulp or straw board—of the required size. The medium weight is the best, and it may generally be obtained at the bookbinder's. If this cannot be obtained, two sheets of 10-ply card-board may be used instead. The size given in the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper. The edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used; the strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board. After the binding has been put on, the top of the board should be covered with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and the paper should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and yet leave a suitable width of the binding. The so-called "cover papers" will be found satisfactory.
Making the Corners.—The next step in the process is to lay out and cut the leather corners according to the original design. The form in which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the illustration B. The little flap at x should be noted. It is designed to tuck under and close the corner. The edges of leather at x should be "skived" or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the work. Further improvement will result from skiving down the edges S R S and T V T of the large flaps, which are to be folded over underneath and pasted down to the back of the board. The ordinary photographers' paste is satisfactory for this work. When the leather corners are placed in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses of blotting paper should be used at each corner, in order to secure the necessary space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use. After the corners are pasted on, the back of the board should be covered with paper in the same way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion of the binding and leather exposed. Finally a number of blotters of full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry.
The Design.—In the illustration (A), showing a card-case unfolded, the dimensions give the finished size. The same card-case is illustrated in B somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned in. The design on A is a rectangle broken at the corners. In this case, as it may be with all similar forms, the design is treated as a sort of binding, extending across the middle fold. C shows an alternative design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both sides of the card-case. The question of which is the top and bottom in such a design as that in C can be determined only by the owner's habit of holding a case. Sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner flaps, as illustrated in A, or on one of the outer surfaces.
The Process.—In cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in order to allow for trimming. The design should be transferred, the line of stitching determined, and the tooling done, according to the description already given for the other problems.
The Lining.—A card-case may be lined either with silk or with sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize with the outside. If lined with silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling, great care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true and square. Then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly pasted along the edges to a width of 1⁄8 of an inch, care being taken, however, not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible when the flaps of the cover are turned in, i. e., the middle of the fold B. This precaution should be taken because the paste may strike through and spot the lining. The flaps should then be moistened a little and folded down with firm pressure; but before stitching they should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets. This takes the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in the problem of the note-book. If lined with sheepskin, the ooze side showing, the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching; then both may be trimmed at once.
The Design.—The details of design and construction are shown in the accompanying illustrations. In A the outer flap is shown tooled. It will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the central point in design. The tooling is done as directed in the other examples of this class of work.
The purse is lined throughout with leather. It has bellows ends, as shown in the perspective at C and in the end view at B. The pattern of the bellows end shown in D is intended to fold in the middle, bringing both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double thickness. With thin leather, such as is used in the present instance, this pattern is practicable. If thicker leather be used the bellows must be made of single thickness. In this case the pattern would simply be like that shown in the lower half of D.
The Process.—After the lining is pasted to the cover a snap fastener should be attached. Proper care, of course, should be taken to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse will fold properly. The cover and lining should then be trimmed and the leather surface ruled for stitching. It is well to fold the inner flap of the purse while it is moist from pasting. Finally a little paste is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in position.
Stitching is started at the point E shown in the perspective. Hand stitching is the most practicable. The direction is down one side, up the other, and around the outside flap to the other bellows end, stopping at the point F. When the stitching is completed the inside flap should be folded down.
The Design.—The first step is to choose the book to be bound. For the sake of simplicity, as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding undertaken, it should be a folio or "section." And it should be worth binding in leather. The subject, the paper, and the typography should be worthy of the distinction.
The Process.—If the book selected is already bound or "cased" it is necessary first to remove the binding or casing. Then at least three fly leaves should be added, made up to match the other leaves of the folio. A piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the size of the open folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the fly leaves and the folio itself, stitched through the back with silk of a colour to harmonize with the leather.
The next step is to prepare the leather cover. To do this, first place the leather in position on the closed folio and, allowing 1⁄4 of an inch at the top and bottom and 3⁄8 of an inch at the fore edge, mark and cut out the stock for the cover. The decoration, if there is to be any, may now be tooled on. If the design is heavy enough in relief to need a backing, it may be at once filled with cotton batting, pasted in as directed in the problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper.
Stock for the end papers is now selected. They may be of cover paper, or of silk, and they should harmonize in colour with the leather. They are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen, by folding it over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf. If of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen is pasted in. If the end leaves are to be of silk, an allowance of 1⁄4 of an inch must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom and the fore edge.
We are now ready to paste the linen to the leather. Strong paste, with perhaps a little thin glue added, is needed for this part of the process. Now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of the cover; and, if silk has been used for these leaves, paste the other two to the outer fly leaves. Finally, the book should be placed under very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry. Care should be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling, if there is any, so as not to crush it.
There is a limited field for metal work in home decoration; but there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to a remarkable degree and, in their making, introduce us to most interesting operations. Beginning with the gate, which may be of wrought iron, or with the door knocker, which may be of antique brass, we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals. Ornamental hinges, key escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds, andirons, and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other useful things that may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves. How some of these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems:
This is an easy problem. Only four constructive operations are required, viz., cutting out the stock, sawing the design, bending, and finishing. The illustration shows the form and the dimensions and suggests a simple design. The material required is 18-gauge soft copper.
The first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper 8 inches long and 4 inches wide. If necessary the edges may be trimmed even and then the round corners should be cut. The design is traced on strong, thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position by using cold liquid glue. A hole is drilled through each unit of the design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers' saw inserted, and the design cut. Time and patience will be required for this operation. Saws are easily broken, and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and again applied to the work. After sawing the design it is necessary to give the edges a smooth finish. This is done with a file. The surface which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and polished with water and pumice.
The copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape. To do this prepare a block of hard wood 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, grip it in a bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of the block. When this has been done it only remains to clean the outside surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. If a fine polish is desired, the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a Scotch water stone and water.
This requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same operations, with the addition of riveting. After the stock is cut out, trimmed and trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is pasted on, as in the previous problem, and the design cut out. The top is then bent over and riveted with a copper tack, having shaped the head of the tack in the vise before inserting it. While the tack is being riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead block. Finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross section, and the whole cleaned and polished.
For this problem 12-gauge copper will be needed. The operations required are cutting out, sawing, and soft soldering. After the necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed, the design is outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. It is desirable to grind with the Scotch stone and water to a good polish. The head will then be ready to be attached to the pin.
Carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin is to be attached (shown in the drawing), select a steel pin of desired length, scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of it, apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small stick, and then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit of soft solder, which should cover the whole disk. Now place the copper, outside face down, on an asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste to the central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder on this portion of the copper, and fuse as before.
When the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide, which will have formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid, and polish on the buffing wheel.
Eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary. The slight bending of the copper, required in this case, is done by means of a horn mallet and a sand pad. For hard soldering, the surface must be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water and applied with a small brush. The belt plate should then be placed on the asbestos pad, with its convex face down, and blocked up so that the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal. The catch should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder at the base. The solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame. The hinge is soldered on in the same way, and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use.
This problem is much like the first one described under metal work. Sixteen-gauge copper is required. It may be bent by placing it between two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet.
Twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are similar to those already described; but the cutting and bending are much more difficult. After determining the design it will be necessary to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as illustrated in the detail of the corner. The four corners must be marked and cut exactly as shown in the drawing. A piece of hard wood is then cut to the size of the top, 5 inches square in this case, to be used as a form on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges. If the corners are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place, to be bored and riveted, as the drawing plainly shows. In order to protect the tablecloth, the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the under surface. As an additional protection, a felt mat may be glued on the bottom.
This problem introduces engraving and enamelling, two interesting but somewhat difficult operations. The process to be carried out is as follows: Using 12-gauge copper, saw the outline, and apply the design for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper. Then strengthen the pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl. Imbed this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table. Using an engraving tool, remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to the depth of 1⁄32 of an inch. It is well to have the bottom of the spot reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly undercut. Before applying the flux, clean, by pouring a small quantity of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off under the water tap. Flux should be kept in a closed jar under water after grinding, and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of copper previously cleaned with acid. Enough flux should be applied to cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled; but the depth of the spot must not be filled up.
Now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod, and apply the flame of the blowpipe to the under side. Heat very slowly until all the water is driven off, then force the heat until the flux is fused. Allow it to cool slowly, then remove any flux that may have adhered to the surface of the fob by grinding with Scotch stone. Clean with acid as before, fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was applied, and fuse again. After fusing, the surface should be stoned again to remove inequalities and again fused, cleaned with water and buffed on the wheel.
If it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be omitted and the enamel applied directly, but the silver should be cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great care should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little above that of enamel. The depth of the engraving on the silver need not be as great as on the copper.
Eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem, and two new operations, viz., raising and chasing, are introduced. After cutting out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one half an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it to red heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric acid pickle bath. A circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is lightly scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the shape indicated in the sketch, and placed in a vise. Now holding the copper on the block, it is raised to shape with the round end of the roughing hammer. It is well to anneal frequently.