White Spruce (Ore., Col., Utah, Idaho).
Balsam, Engelmann's Spruce (Utah).
White Pine (Idaho), Mountain Spruce (Mont.).
Locality.
Rocky Mountain region, Montana to Mexico, Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia (high elevations).
Features of Tree.
Frequently seventy-five to one hundred feet in height and sometimes higher, two to three feet in diameter, sometimes low shrub.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood pale reddish yellow, sapwood similar. Close, straight grain, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Lumber, charcoal, fuel. Bark rich in tannin, sometimes used for tanning.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
21.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,140,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
8100.
Remarks.
Notable as resident of high altitudes, extensive forests occurring at eight to ten thousand feet above sea-level. A valuable tree of the central and southern Rocky Mountain region. [p153]
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Sitka Spruce (local and common name).
Tideland Spruce (Cal., Oreg., Wash.).
Menzies Spruce.
Western Spruce.
Great Tideland Spruce.
Locality.
Pacific coast region, Alaska to central California. Extends inland about fifty miles; prefers low elevations.
Features of Tree.
One hundred and fifty feet or more in height, three feet or more in diameter. Flat-pointed pyramidal needles, oval cylindrical cones, thick scaly reddish-brown bark.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse-grained, satiny.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Construction, interior finish, fencing, boat-building, cooperage.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
2626.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,400.
Remarks.
The Douglas or Red Pine, Spruce, or Fir, of the Pacific coast is neither true pine, spruce, nor fir, but a sort of bastard hemlock. The name "pseudotsuga" is from pseudo, or false, and tsuga, or hemlock. The trees are among the greatest known. The wood resembles larch or hard pine in properties, appearance, and applications. Trees have been successfully planted in the Adirondacks. The species was earlier classed as Pinus taxifolia and as Abies taxifolia. [p155]
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Oregon Pine (Cal., Wash., Oreg.).
Red Fir, Yellow Fir (Oreg., Wash., Idaho, Utah, Mont., Col.).
Douglas Tree, Cork-barked Douglas Spruce.
Spruce, Fir (Mont.).
Red Pine (Utah, Idaho, Col.).
Puget Sound Pine (Wash.).
Locality.
Pacific coast region, Mexico to British Columbia. Best in western Oregon and Washington.
Features of Tree.
One hundred and seventy-five to sometimes three hundred feet in height, three to five and sometimes ten feet in diameter. Older bark rough-gray, often looking as though braided.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light red to yellow, sapwood nearly white.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Variable, usually hard, strong, difficult to work, durable.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Heavy construction, dimension timbers, railway ties, piles, fuel.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,680,000 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]
1,862,000 (average of 21 specimens by Soulé).[87]
1,824,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7,900 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]
9,334 (average of 21 specimens by Soulé).[87]
12,500.
Remarks.
Used similarly to hard pine. Lumbermen divide into red and yellow woods, the former dark and coarse, the latter fine, lighter, and more desirable. These distinctions probably due to age. One of the world's greatest trees. [p156]
[87] Professor Frank Soulé, University of California. Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., p. 552, Vol. XXIX.
Several of the fir-trees of the western United States attain to very great size. The silver fir (Abies grandis) and the white fir (Abies concolor) supply much wood in the section in which they grow. The balsam fir (Abies balsamea) of the Eastern States is of some commercial importance.
Fir wood resembles spruce in appearance and in structural qualities. It may be told from spruce as well as from pine and larch by the fact that fir has no resin-ducts. The balsam fir is distinguishable by clear liquid resin which appears in blisters in the bark. The coarse, weak wood is cleaner than the bark would indicate. Spruce and fir woods are often confused in the United States, while pine, spruce, and fir are similarly confounded in Europe.
Fir trees have flat, scattered, evergreen leaves, and cones that stand erect (see footnote under spruce). [p157]
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Balsam (Vt., N. H., N. Y.).
Fir Tree (Vt.).
Balm of Gilead (Del.).
Canada Balsam (N. C.).
Balm of Gilead Fir (N. Y., Pa.).
Blister Pine, Fir Pine (W. Va.).
Single Spruce, Silver Pine (Hudson Bay).
Locality.
Minnesota to Virginia, northward intermittently into Canada.
Features of Tree.
Fifty to seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Sometimes low shrub. Blisters in smooth bark contain thick balsam. Erect cones.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood white to brownish, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact structure, satiny.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Soft, light, not durable or strong, resinous, easily split.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Occasionally used as inferior lumber.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
23.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,160,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7300.
Remarks.
Scattered throughout Northern pineries. Cut when of sufficient size and sold with pine or spruce. Cultivated in gardens. Exudations known as Canada Balsam used in medicine. The poplar (P. balsamifera) is also called Balm of Gilead. [p158]
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Silver Fir (Mont., Idaho).
Oregon White Fir, Western White Fir (Cal.).
Yellow Fir (Mont., Idaho).
Lowland Fir.
Locality.
Vancouver region, northwestern United States. Best in west Washington and Oregon.
Features of Tree.
Two hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. Leaves deep green above, silvery below, usually curved. A handsome tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Lumber, interior finish, packing-cases, cooperage.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
22.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,360,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7000.
Remarks.
Nomenclature. (Sudworth).
Silver Fir, Balsam (Cal.).
California White Fir (Cal.).
Black Gum, Bastard Pine (Utah).
White Balsam (Utah).
Balsam Tree (Idaho).
Colorado White Fir, Concolor White Fir.
Locality.
Rocky Mountains and coast ranges, high elevations.
Features of Tree.
Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. Pale green or silvery foliage. Bark blisters filled with clear pitch.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown to nearly white, sapwood same or darker. Coarse-grained, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong, without odor.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Butter-tubs, packing-boxes, lumber.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
22.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,290,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
9900.
Remarks.
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
California Red Fir, California Red-bark Fir (Cal.).
Magnificent Fir, Golden Fir (Cal.).
Shasta Fir (Cal.).
Locality.
California, vicinity of Mount Shasta.
Features of Tree.
One hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, six to ten feet in diameter. Large erect cones. Beautiful form.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish, sapwood distinguishable. Rather close-grained, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong, durable when exposed, liable to injury in seasoning.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Construction, sills, lumber, fuel.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
29.
Modulus of Elasticity.
940,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
9900.
Remarks.
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Noble Silver Fir, Noble Red Fir.
Larch (Oreg.).
Bigtree, Feather-cone, Red Fir (Cal.).
Locality.
Northwestern United States. Cultivated in East.
Features of Tree.
One to two hundred feet in height, six to nine feet in diameter. Leaves curved. Large, beautiful tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood darker. Rather close-grained, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, hard, strong, elastic.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Fitted for house-trimmings.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
28.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,800,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
22,200.
Remarks.
Grows at high elevations (3000 and 4000 feet). With other fir forms extensive forests. Sold as larch. [p162]
Peters, "Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. VIII, No. 9 (Sept. 1902), pp. 362, 366.
The hemlocks are distributed over northern United States from Maine to Michigan, in the Rocky Mountains, and on the Pacific coast. They generally mingle with broad-leaved and other needle-leaved species, but occasionally form pure forests by themselves.
The wood is coarse, often crossed-grained, perishable, brittle, liable to wind-shakes, hard to work, and apt to warp and splinter. It holds nails firmly and is used for coarse lumber, dimension pieces, paper-pulp, and latterly for cheap finish. It should not be relied upon to receive shocks. The bark is used in tanning.
Hemlock trees may be known by their blunt, flat, evergreen leaves, appearing two-ranked and whitened beneath (see foot-note under Spruce). Red inner bark. [p163]
| Hemlock Tree (Tsuga canadensis). | Western Hemlock Tree (T. heterophylla). (6500 feet above sea-level.) |
| Hemlock Foliage (Tsuga canadensis). | |
| Hemlock Wood (Tsuga canadensis). | |
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Hemlock (local and common name).
Spruce (Pa., W. Va.).
Hemlock Spruce (Vt., R. I., N. Y., Pa., N. J., W. Va., N. C., S. C.).
Spruce Pine (Pa., Del., Va., N. C., Ga.).
Locality.
Eastern and central Canada, southward to North Carolina and Tennessee.
Features of Tree.
Sixty to eighty or more feet in height, two or three feet in diameter. Short leaves, green above and white beneath. Straight trunk, beautiful appearance.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood distinguishable. Coarse, pronounced, usually crooked grain.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong or durable, brittle, difficult to work, retains nails firmly, splintery.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Coarse lumber, joists, rafters, plank walks, laths, railway ties.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
26.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,270,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,400.
Remarks.
The Southern or Carolina Hemlock (T. caroliniana) resembles Hemlock. The Western Hemlock (T. heterophylla, Alaska to California) attains height of 180 feet, diameter of 9 feet, and is said to afford heavier and better wood. This tree is known by the following names (Sudworth):
"The Western Hemlock." Allen, U. S. Forestry Bureau Bulletin No. 33.
Larch was well known in the older time, and was prized in Europe and the Orient. The two principal American species are also called tamarack and hackmatack. The Eastern larch or tamarack (L. americana) prefers peculiar low, wet areas known as tamarack swamps. The Western tree (L. occidentalis) resembles the European species and prefers dry places.
Larch wood has always been regarded as very durable. It is noted by Pliny and other ancient authors.[88] Vitruvius mentions a bridge that, having burned, was replaced by one of larch, because that wood would not burn as readily.[89] The foundation-piles of Venice are said to be of larch.[90] It should be remembered that the identities of ancient woods are not always beyond question. American larch resembles, if it does not equal, true foreign wood. The trees are tall and straight, but so slender as to be seldom cut into lumber, almost the entire supply being demanded for posts, ties, and poles. The exceedingly durable wood resembles spruce in structure, and hard pine in weight and appearance.
Larch trees are marked by the fact that their foliage is deciduous. The little leaves, gathered in tufts or bundles, are of a bright pea-green when fresh in the springtime. The appearance of tamarack trees when divested of foliage in the winter is very gloomy. [p165]
[88] Pliny, XVI, 43-49 and XVI, 30.
[89] Vitruvius, II, 9.
[90] Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 310.
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Tamarack, Larch, American Larch (local and common names).
Hackmatack (Me., N. H., Mass., R. I., Del., Ill., Mich.).
Black Larch, Red Larch (Minn., Mich.).
Juniper (Me., Canada).
Locality.
Northern United States and southern Canada, east from Great Lakes.
Features of Tree.
Seventy to ninety feet high, one to three feet in diameter. Short pea-green deciduous leaves in tufts. A slender tree, winter aspect gloomy.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, annual layers pronounced.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Heavy, hard, very strong, durable, resembles spruce.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Railway ties, fence-posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles, flagstaffs, etc.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
38.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,790,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
12,800.
Remarks.
Practically all (tall thin) trunks required for railway ties, posts, masts, etc. Seldom cut into lumber in consequence. Grows in light swamps often extensive and known as tamarack swamp. (Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, Vol. XXIX, page 157). [p166]
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Tamarack, Larch (local and common names).
Hackmatack (Idaho, Wash.).
Western Larch, Great Western Larch, Red American Larch.
Western Tamarack (Cal.).
Locality.
Washington and Oregon, intermittently to Montana.
Features of Tree.
Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, two and one-half to four feet in diameter. A large tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light red, thin sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact structure, annual rings pronounced.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Hard, heavy, strong, durable.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Posts, railway ties, fuel, limited quantity of lumber, similar to L. americana.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
46.
Modulus of Elasticity.
2,300,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
17,400.
Remarks.
A valuable tree of the Columbian basin. Differs from L. americana in that it grows on dry ground, often at high elevations. [p167]
| Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani). | Foliage of White Cedar (T. occidentalis). |
| Red Cedar Bark (Juniperus virginiana). | Foliage of Red Cedar (J. virginiana). |
| White Cedar Wood (Thuya occidentalis). | Tree of Red Cedar (J. virginiana). |
Cedar was a name first applied to the true or Lebanon cedars (Cedrus) of the Eastern continent, but later to certain Arborvitæs (Thuya), Junipers (Juniperus), and Cypresses (Chamæcyparis), and other trees (see "Spanish Cedar," page 122) from which durable, fine-grained, more or less fragrant woods, known as cedar, are obtained. Cedar was highly prized by the ancients, who employed it in costly constructions, such as the temples of Solomon and of Diana at Ephesus.[91] [92] Woods known as cedar are divided into so-called Red and White Cedars.
Red Cedar is very fine-grained, soft, light, durable, fragrant, and of a pinkish-red color. Much wood is derived from the Red Cedars, Juniperus virginiana, Juniperus scopulorum, and Juniperus barbadensis, of the Eastern, Western, and Southern States respectively. Although seen in construction, red cedar is chiefly used in chests, closets, lead-pencils, and cigar-boxes. One hundred and twenty-five thousand trees (125,000)[93] are annually required for lead-pencils alone. The waste is often converted into shavings and used instead of camphor to protect woolens. The demand is greater than the supply. Trees are easily grown on almost any soil. Trees and wood are subject to fungus diseases which apparently cease after trees have been felled; the wood is then durable.[94]
White Cedar is best defined as all cedar that is not "red cedar," [p168] and is obtained from several valuable trees.[95] The arborvitæs (T. occidentalis) vary in size from large bushes used in hedging and ornamentation to small-sized trees gathered for wood. They are most vigorous on cold, wet areas known as cedar swamps.[96] The giant arborvitæ (T. gigantea), noted for its great girth, and the yellow and Lawson Cypresses, are important Pacific coast species. The incense cedar, while much subject to fungus trouble, is also prized.[97] White cedar wood is durable, plentiful, and employed in exposed positions as ties and shingles.
Arborvitæs (Thuya) have very small overlapping leaves that form flat rods or fan-like sprays. The cones are oblong, less than one-half inch in length, and all of their six or eight scales separate or open when ripe. The cypresses (Chamæcyparis) exhibit similar foliage, but their tiny cones are simple, roughened, close, or solid globules. The Junipers (Juniperus) often, but not always, bear bluish-black berries powdered with a whitish-blue bloom. The true cedars (Cedrus) differ from the others in that they have simple needle leaves, an inch, more or less, in length, together with cones erect and several inches in length. The Deodar or cedar of India is of this genus. The principal American red and white cedars are as follows:
[91] It is probable that the ancients also used the word Cedar somewhat generally.
[92] Pliny, 16, 213 and 16, 216.
[93] Notes on Red Cedar, Mohr. Bul. 31, U. S. Division Forestry (Gifford Pinchot, Forester).
[94] Several of the fungoid parasites cause swellings known as "cedar apples." The branches usually die. Professor von Schrenk recognizes two diseases of the wood, white rot (Polyporus juniperus Schrenk) and red rot (Polyporus carneus). (Bulletin No. 21, Division Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.)
[95] Heartwood often light grayish brown.
[96] Trunks of considerable size often grow surrounding, but apart from, such swamps. Vigorous lower branches impede progress through swamps, which are often as thick as to resemble immense cultivated hedges. (Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., Vol XXIX, p. 157.)
[97] Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis.
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Red Cedar (local and common name).
Cedar (Conn., Pa., N. J., S. C., Ky., Ill., Ia., Ohio).
Pencil Cedar, Cendre (La.).
Savin (Mass., R. I., N. Y., Pa., Minn.).
Juniper, Red Juniper, Juniper Bush (local).
Locality.
Atlantic coast, Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to Mississippi River in the North, and Colorado River in the South.
Features of Tree.
Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. Sometimes low shrubs. Dark-green foliage, loose ragged outer bark.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood dull red, thin sapwood nearly white. Close, even grain, compact structure, annual layers easily distinguishable.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable, fragrant.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Ties, sills, posts, interior finish, pencil-cases, chests, cigar-boxes.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
30
Modulus of Elasticity.
950,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,500.
Remarks.
Fragrance of wood utilized as insecticide. The Western Red Cedar (J. scopulorum) and the Southern Red Cedar (J. barbadensis) afford similar wood. [p170]
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Juniper (Oreg., Cal., Col., Utah, Nev., Mont., Idaho, N. M.).
Cedar, Yellow Cedar, Western Cedar (Idaho, Col., Mont.).
Western Red Cedar, Western Juniper (local).
Locality.
California, Washington, and Oregon.
Features of Tree.
Twenty-five to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, often smaller. Long straight trunk in West.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood nearly white. Very close-grained, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, durable, receives high polish.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Fencing, railway ties, posts, and fuel.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
35.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Rupture.
Remarks.
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
White Cedar, Arborvitæ (local and common names).
Cedar (Me., Vt., N. Y.).
Atlantic Red Cedar (Cal.).
Vitæ (Del.).
Locality.
Northern States eastward from Manitoba and Michigan. Northward, also occasionally southward, as in mountain region of North Carolina and eastern Tennessee.
Features of Tree.
Thirty to sixty feet high, one to three feet or more in diameter, often smaller. Bruised leaves emit characteristic pungent odor, rapidly tapering trunk.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown, darkening with exposure, thin sapwood, nearly white. Even, rather fine grain, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Soft, light, weak, brittle, durable, inflammable. Permits spikes to work loose.
Representative Uses of Wood.