ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Summary. The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences.—Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives and Participles.—Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject); the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and Predicate.—Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses; Compound and Complex Sentences.
1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed by a full pause.
2. Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,—a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is fire and the predicate is burns. In the third, the subject is rain; the predicate, is falling. In the last, the subject is a man who respects himself; the predicate, should never condescend to use slovenly language.
Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing (fire) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (burns), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence.
3. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.
2. An interrogative sentence asks a question.
3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also exclamatory, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice.
4. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker and hearer without being expressed.
Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both speaker and hearer, are said to be “understood.” Thus, in “Open the window,” the subject is “you (understood).” If expressed, the subject would be emphatic: as,—“You open the window.”
5. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the predicate precedes.
A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the inverted order. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences.
6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.
Savage beasts roamed through the forest.
In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects; roamed asserts action, telling us what the beasts did; savage describes the beasts; through shows the relation in thought between forest and roamed; the limits the meaning of forest, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has its special office (or function) in the sentence.
7. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
8. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
9. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.
In “I am ready,” the pronoun I is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name. In “You have forgotten your umbrella,” the pronouns you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking.
Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the name.
10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech.
11. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.5
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.
The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say wooden box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the shape of the box.
Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives.
We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are called definitive adjectives.6
14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.7
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
Thus, in “You will see,” the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future action; in “We might have invited her,” the auxiliaries might and have help invited to express action that was possible in past time.
The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.
17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject.
In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold.
In sentences 4–7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used.
In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.
Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the “joiner” or “link.”
The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the commonest are: am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be.8
18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in “The river fell rapidly,” the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling took place. In “I am never late,” “This is absolutely true,” “That is too bad,” the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came very often,” “He spoke almost hopefully,” “The river fell too rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.
Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what degree or extent?”
19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns.
| Adjectives | Adverbs |
|---|---|
| A bright fire burned. | The fire burned brightly. |
| A fierce wind blew. | The wind blew fiercely. |
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives modify substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
20. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
A preposition is said to govern its object.
In “The surface of the water glistened,” of makes it clear that surface belongs with water. In “Philip is on the river,” on shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. In, or near, or beyond would have indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, and river is the object of the preposition on.
21. A preposition often has more than one object.
22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.
In “Time and tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small but heavy,” “He wore a kind of doublet or jacket,” the conjunctions and, but, or, connect single words,—time with tide, small with heavy, doublet with jacket. In “Do not go if you are afraid,” “I came because you sent for me,” “Take my key, but do not lose it,” “Sweep the floor and dust the furniture,” each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.
23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.”
24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive lay,” and “He lay on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech.
25. The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.
| Nouns | Adjectives |
|---|---|
| Rubber comes from South America. | This wheel has a rubber tire. |
| That brick is yellow. | Here is a brick house. |
| The rich have a grave responsibility. | A rich merchant lives here. |
The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.
| Nouns | Verbs |
|---|---|
| Hear the wash of the tide. | Wash those windows. |
| Give me a stamp. | Stamp this envelope. |
| It is the call of the sea. | Ye call me chief. |
| Adjectives | Adverbs |
|---|---|
| That is a fast boat. | The snow is melting fast. |
| Draw a straight line. | The arrow flew straight. |
| Early comers get good seats. | Tom awoke early. |
For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191.
| Adjectives | Pronouns |
|---|---|
| This man looks unhappy. | This is the sergeant. |
| That book is a dictionary. | That is a kangaroo. |
| Each day brings its opportunity. | I received a dollar from each. |
For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62–65.
| Adverbs | Prepositions |
|---|---|
| Jill came tumbling after. | He returned after the accident. |
| We went below. | Below us lay the valley. |
| The weeds sprang up. | We walked up the hill. |
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:—
| Noun. | The calm lasted for three days. |
|---|---|
| Adjective. | Calm words show quiet minds. |
| Verb. | Calm your angry friend. |
26. Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective).
27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences:
To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape; and, in the third sentence, regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to exercise regularly.
But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives.
28. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.
29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:—“I intend to go,” “John is sure to win,” “Mary is permitted to recite,” “Jack is able to swim.”
30. The following sentence contains two participles:—
Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink. They both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.
31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in ing. Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 334).
33. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
Note. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.
34. Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance.
Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives (nouns and pronouns) and verbs.
Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places, or things, and verbs enable us to make statements about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no subject; without a verb, there can be no predicate: and both a subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.
Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives and verbs. Their function is to modify other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating how, when, or where the action took place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use for adverbs.
Prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect.
Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection.
35. A sentence may consist of but two words,—a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,—
Charles | swims.
Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus,—
Young Charles | swims slowly.
Here the complete subject (young Charles) consists of a noun (Charles) and an adjective (young), which describes Charles. The complete predicate consists of a verb (swims) and an adverb (slowly), which modifies swim by indicating how the action is performed. The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb (swims) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought (Charles swims), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included.
36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.
In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics:—
37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound subject, and two or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate.
38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles and Henry) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives (hats, caps, boots, gloves) form a series in which the last two are joined by and. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate.
39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate: and (both ... and), or (either ... or; whether ... or), nor (neither ... nor).
40. A group of words may take the place of a part of speech
The Father of Waters is used as a noun, since it names something.
With blue eyes takes the place of an adjective (blue-eyed), and modifies girl.
At the window indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, and modifies stood.
Are looking could be replaced by the verb look.
41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.
A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.
1. A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.
2. A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.
4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.
In the examples in § 40, The Father of Waters is a noun-phrase; with blue eyes, an adjective phrase; at the window, an adverbial phrase; are looking, a verb-phrase.
42. Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a preposition and its object, with or without other words.
Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.
43. Phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses. The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate and a phrase does not.
44. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.
Each of these sentences contains two clauses; but the relation between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from that between the clauses in the second.
In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a separate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a simple sentence,—that is, as a sentence having but one subject and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction and, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels that there is some relation in thought between the two statements, or he would not have put them together as clauses in the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of expression to show what that relation is. In other words, the two clauses are grammatically independent, for neither of them modifies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are therefore said to be coördinate,—that is, of the same “order” or rank, and the sentence is called compound.
In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (the train started) makes the main statement,—it expresses the chief fact. Hence it is called the main (or principal) clause. The other clause (when the bell rang) is added because the speaker wishes to modify the main verb (started) by defining the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a part of speech. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (promptly) or an adverbial phrase (on the stroke of the bell). For this purpose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. Hence it is called a dependent (or subordinate) clause, because it depends (that is, “hangs”) upon the main clause, and so occupies a lower or “subordinate” rank in the sentence. When thus constructed, a sentence is said to be complex.
45. An ordinary compound sentence (as we have seen in § 44) is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which thus becomes an independent coördinate clause.
In the same way we may join two or more complex sentences, using them as clauses to make one compound sentence:—
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the last car disappeared.
This sentence is manifestly compound, for it consists of two coördinate clauses (the train started when the bell rang; Tom watched until the last car disappeared) joined by and. Each of these two clauses is itself complex, for each could stand by itself as a complex sentence.
Similarly, a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as coördinate clauses to make a compound sentence.
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in despair.
Such a sentence, which is compound in its structure, but in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex, is called a compound complex sentence.9
46. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.
A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.
Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.
Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.
1. A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.
2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.
3. A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.
A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.
The following conjunctions may be used to join coördinate clauses: and (both ... and), or (either ... or), nor (neither ... nor), but, for.
Examples will be found in §§ 48–50.
47. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.
1. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.
2. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.
3. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.
48. I. Noun (or Substantive) Clauses.
{Success | That we should succeed in this plan} is improbable.
The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the noun success; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, that we should succeed in this plan. This clause is introduced by the conjunction that; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun we, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase should succeed. The first sentence is simple; the second is complex.
Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that.
49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) an adjective clause, as a modifier of the subject noun.
The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.
50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase, (3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or verb-phrase).
The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.
51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns who, which, and that, or (2) by adverbs like where, whence, whither, when.
Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, how, as, or (2) by the conjunctions because, though, although, if, that (in order that, so that), lest, etc.
Note. The use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases enormously the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the expression of thought.
1. Language is thought expressed in words.
2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.
3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.
(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.
(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also be exclamatory.
5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.
8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.
Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective.
(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject. In such sentences, is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.
(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers.
(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.
12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.
13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.
A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.
(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.
(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.
(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.
14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.
15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.
16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.
17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.
18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.
(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.
(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.
(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.
A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.
19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.
(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.
(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.
(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.