In travelling over rough passes and steep acclivities great attention should be paid to the application of proper break power to the wheels. The use of the skid and common drag-chain are too well known to need comment here, only that it may not be amiss to remark, en passant, that, conducting your waggon down the edge of a steep hollow, or ravine, you must have your shoe placed on the wheel away from the drop side. Never use your drag-chain when you can safely do without it, as, by confining the wheel in one position during the descent of steep pitches, the portion of the tire in contact with the ground will be seriously ground and cut up. All comparatively light carts and waggons should have the lever friction breaks before mentioned attached to them. These contrivances are simple in construction, powerful in action, and, by allowing a certain amount of retarded action to the wheel, many advantages are gained. The detail of the break arrangement varies greatly in the different countries in which it is used; but the illustration on p. 443 will serve to show the principle on which it is constructed. The roller (A) has two stout pieces of hide rope wound round it. These are attached to the break-bar (B), which slides forward and back under the staples (C). By depressing the end of the lever (D) and hooking down its end, the friction blocks (E) are drawn against the surfaces of the wheel tires and retained there with just as much force as is thought requisite. The movements of a waggon train furnished with these contrivances are not retarded and rendered irregular by the constant and harassing stoppages consequent on the leading waggoners skidding and unskidding. On the crest of a steep descent being reached, all the teamster has to do is to heave down his lever to the required pitch, and hook on without stopping his team. On getting near the bottom he unhooks, and is prepared to move smartly up on the rise before him, all the other waggons following his example. In this way there is no check. In going down dangerously-steep inclines it is a good plan to attach a short bushy tree of good weight, root end forwards, by a strong rope or chain to the hind axle.

A very effective makeshift break can be made by cutting a tough, stout pole, long enough to extend some distance beyond the diameter of the wheel to be dragged. Lash the ends of the pole to the framework of the waggon, so as to nip the wheel, as shown in the accompanying illustration. Almost any amount of nipping power may be gained by tightening the lashings. A large exploring party, or troops on the march, can also, when requisite, make use of drag ropes, by which to ease a load down a difficult place. When it is desirable to completely lock a pair of wheels, cut down a young tree of suitable size, trim off the branches, and cut it to a length sufficient to pass directly across the bottom of the waggon, through the spokes of each of the wheels to be locked, and extend a couple of feet or so beyond the nave of each wheel a few turns of rope round both the tree and the felloe of the wheel prevents the arrangement from slipping. locking wheels This is a very good plan to adopt when a waggon has to be stopped for any time in the middle of a very steep incline. The two wheels on one side of a short-bodied carriage may be locked by applying a rope or chain, as shown in the annexed illustration. By treating both sides alike all four wheels would be locked, as when waggons are drawn up to resist attacking Indians, only that chain must be used in order to prevent the locking from being cut free, and the waggon being started out of its place.

If one wheel of a four-wheeled carriage gets broken on a journey, or when some distance out of camp, and there is no spare wheel to replace it, make the two fore wheels good, leaving the deficiency with the hind axle; then cut down a tree about 8in. or 9in. in diameter, cut a deep notch in its large end, lay this on the axle directly inside the fore wheel on the side towards the absent hind wheel; measure the length of the tree, and see that it is long enough to trail on the ground sledge, runner fashion, behind the carriage, round up the ground end, like the toe of a skate, with your axe; cut another notch on its upper surface for the end of the axle from which the broken wheel came to rest in. Now lash both the front and hind axles in their places firmly, as shown in the annexed illustration, and you will be at least able to get to a convenient place to effect a perfect repair; and here we would advise the reader never to despair of making a successful mend in almost any case of breakages among wheeled carriages, provided wood, a few tools, and raw hide can be obtained. A raw hide band, properly fitted on wet, and allowed to dry gradually, is little less reliable than good wrought iron, and far more so than bad.

Every wheeled carriage used in exploring or travelling long journeys should have its own grease box secured in a convenient situation; just above and before the near fore wheel is a good place. The form of the common Indian bamboo grease box is shown at p. 359, illustration No. 3. A good-sized ox-horn makes a convenient grease box. A mixture of Stockholm tar, 6lb., and fat, 1lb., makes a good grease. If a little common plumbago can be got to put into it, so much the better. In countries where native vegetable oils are abundant, they may be used, instead of the fat, to mix with the tar. Bear in mind that keeping the wheels well greased is a duty of no common importance. In hot countries it is an excellent plan to work the naves of the wheels over with strong twine, just as boys work balls in some parts of England. The twine-work affords a holdfast for a thick layer of wet cowdung, or clay, which should be renewed whenever the waggons are stationary for the day or night. We never omit this custom when it can be by any possibility adhered to. By keeping the nave moist the spokes of the wheel remain tight. It is a good plan to well water the ground under each wheel when encamping on very dry ground. The treatment of injured wheels will be found at pp. 219, 220. When any of the ironwork of your waggon becomes bent from an upset, or other accident, never attempt to straighten it cold. Light a fire, heat it to a red heat, hammer it back to its proper form, and then let it cool gradually before putting it in its place. Plunging it suddenly in cold water is apt to render the metal brittle. In the purchase of all iron fittings for either waggon work or horse equipment, about which we shall have more to say as our work proceeds, insist on seeing it, without paint or varnish, bare from the forge, as you can then see that there are no hollows, cracks, or defects in it. It is wonderful what a number of shortcomings a good thick coat of coal-tar will cover when laid on over the hot metal. Avoid malleable cast iron as you would a broken limb. It cannot be bent without the danger of nipping off short. When broken, it cannot be welded or faggoted up. It is not reliable in any way, and is a mere delusion and snare to the unwary; and yet, incredible as it may appear, not only the greater portion of the cheap horse equipment iron sent to the colonies is made from it, but we have ourselves seen more than one attempt made by unscrupulous contractors to introduce it in Government work, where wrought metal had been specially insisted on and agreed for. An experienced man will generally detect the nature of the material at once, but the inexperienced requires some rough and ready way of judging of the quality of that which he is about to purchase. Buckles, D’s, rings, hooks, &c., will not unfrequently show the mark of the mould in which they were cast. If there is no such mark, take one of the suspected objects in the tongs, put it on an anvil, and with a light hammer knock it about a little to see if it breaks up; as a further test put it in the forge fire, heat it to a bright red heat, cut and open out the object to its full length, and then proceed, with your hammer, to draw out the end, as if you were going to make a long sharp nail from it. If the suspected metal is wrought iron it readily takes the spike form, but if malleable it will give under the hammer and break up. Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of all matters of iron intended to meet the vicissitudes of rough travel. The iron of Sweden, Russia, and India is excellent when it is obtained of native manufacture. Its admirable purity and toughness partly depend on the quality of the ore from which it is obtained, but mainly from the absence of sulphur in its composition. This arises from charcoal being used as a fuel for smelting instead of the coal made use of in this country, which, from its containing considerable quantities of sulphuret of iron (the mundic of the miners), is but ill-adapted for the production of iron of high quality. Thoroughly good iron is convertible and reconvertible into an endless number of objects of usefulness. Thus, the links of an old chain make excellent staples; these, when broken, can be worked up into nails, and pieces of these, when filed up, are used to make goad points and many other things. Every waggon should have its “odd and end” box for small matters in iron, such as linch pins, S hooks, D’s, spikes, union links, &c., &c. All these are worth their weight in gold in a wild country, and must, therefore, be kept carefully out of the reach of natives.

The settler in the vicinity of a frontier beyond which native tribes, who may become hostile at any time, reside will not unfrequently find it useful to know how field artillery and the waggons belonging to it are handled in cases of breakage. Well-organised labour will perform more in a few minutes than would double the amount of force in hours expended in ill-directed efforts. Works exclusively on artillery matters rarely reach the hands of any save officers in that branch of the service. We, therefore, give the following directions for the management of disabled field artillery, furnished by General Lefroy, R.A., F.R.S., in his handbook of “Field Artillery Service.”

Case I.—Gun without a Waggon—Carriage disabled.

(1.) Dismount the gun.

(2.) Nos. 2 and 3 put a handspike in the muzzle, and raise it. Nos. 4 and 5 take a prolonge or drag rope, pass it in the rear of one trunnion and in front of the other, and sling the gun securely to the limber hook; then pass the long end of the rope between the boxes to the front. Nos. 6 and 7 steady the wheels. Nos. 8 and 9 raise and hold up the shafts whilst 4 and 5 sling the gun. As soon as the gun is slung, 8 and 9 haul down the shafts, and hold them about the same height they would be if a horse was hooked in them. Nos. 6 and 7 then take the long end of the rope left by 4 and 5, and bring it down at the end of the box frame, close to the boxes under the breech of the gun about the vent astragal, or between the frame and footboard, according to the length of the gun, so that the rope will have no tendency to slip off the carriage. When 6 has done this and handed the end of the rope to the other side to 7, and put the first part of a reef knot on it, 1 gives the word “Bear down the muzzle,” when 2 and 3 bear down. Nos. 6 and 7 take a turn round the breech, bring the end of the rope up at the end of the box frame, and secure it. Nos. 8 and 9 now let down the shafts and leave them.

(3.) The trail is now thrown round, and the carriage is dismounted and turned over.

(4.) To lift the carriage.—Nos. 8 and 9 place themselves at the breast, 6 and 7 at the axletree arms, 4 and 5 at the cheeks of the carriage, close to the axletree, 2 and 3 at the trail, 1 in the shafts. At the word “Lift,” the numbers all lift, and carry the carriage to the rear of the limber, and rest the breast on the rear of the boxes, as far on as the front cap square bolts. Nos. 8 and 9 then mount on the footboard, and, taking hold of the breast chains, the whole of the numbers lift again, and, moving forward, continue to lift until the elevating screw box rests on the rear of the limber boxes.

(5.) No. 1, who has been in the shafts during the operation, gives the proper directions for balancing the carriage.

(6.) Placing the wheels.—Nos. 4 and 5 put on the washers and linch-pins; the numbers on each side will put on the wheels “dish down;” and the four lowest numbers will lash in rear, and the four highest numbers in front. Nos. 2 and 3 will then secure the trail to the handspike in the muzzle by the locking chain.

(7.) Lashing the carriage.—Nos. 4 and 5 use the box lashings, 6 and 7 the drag rope and breast chains. The side-arms are laid on the top of the boxes close to or between the box guard irons and the carriage.

Case II.—A Gun with a Waggon—Carriage disabled.

(1.) The gun and carriage are dismounted, and the gun is slung as in the first case.

(2.) The waggon and gun carriage are so placed that the rear of the waggon will be close to and in front of the carriage; or, in other words, the gun carriage will be brought to the rear of the waggon, and placed with the trail to the waggon before it is dismounted.

(3.) The carriage is then turned upside down, as in the first case.

(4.) At the word “Prepare to lift,” 2 and 3 place themselves at the breast, 4 and 5 at the axletree arms, 6 and 7 at the cheeks, and 8 and 9 at the trail. At the word “Lift,” the carriage is lifted, and the trail rested on the footboard. Nos. 8 and 9 then jump up and seize the trail handles, and at the next heave bring the trail on the rear box. Then, lifting and moving forward, they bring the trail eye near to the limber boxes, but not to touch them. In this position the cap square bolts will injure the lids of the boxes, but by placing a piece of wood about 3in. or 4in. thick on the boxes it will raise the carriage clear.

(5.) To unlash the waggon boxes and place the wheels.—Nos. 2, 4, 3, and 5 unlash the rear boxes; 6, 8, 7, and 9 the front boxes. Then the two extreme numbers and the two centre ones will each take one of the box lashings (or 2, 9, 5, and 6) and lay them conveniently to where they are needed.

(6.) Placing the wheels.—The four numbers on each side then lift the gun wheels, “dish inwards,” inside the rear wheels of the waggon, and rest them on the axletrees. Nos. 2 and 3 lash the wheels together at the rear. Nos. 4, 6, 5, and 7 lash to the box handles. Nos. 8 and 9 lash together in front, and then fix the trail to the perch.

(7.) The spare side-arms to be put in their proper places on the gun carriage, and the others alongside the gun.

Case III.—A Gun Axletree Arm broken.

(1.) The gun is slung under the limber, as in Cases I. and II., and the carriage is limbered up. Here it may be remarked that a piece of chain would answer best for slinging the gun, because a rope sling takes up so much room that the trail eye is sometimes prevented from being keyed; besides a rope may get chafed.

(2.) To take off the disabled gun.—No. 2 takes a handspike and passes it under the axletree close to the wheel. It is manned at the other end by 8.

(3.) Nos. 4 and 6 stand ready to take off the wheel; 3, 5, 7, and 9 take hold of the highest part of the opposite wheel, and place their feet against the lowest part, to ease 2 and 8. At the word “Take off the wheel,” 2 and 8 lift; the numbers on the opposite side pull over; 4 and 6 take the wheel off the axletree, but hold it in such a position that the axletree will pass between the spokes, where it is to rest, and they remain to keep the wheel steady.

(4.) Nos. 2 and 8 then take a stout spar, about 12ft. or 14ft. long, and pass it under the axletree and secure it to a piece of wood in the trunnion holes and to the cheeks of the carriage.

(5.) The numbers on the opposite side place the wheel, “dish side up,” on the limber boxes; and all the numbers assist to secure it—2, 3, 4, and 5 in rear, 6, 7, 8, and 9 in front.

Case IV.—A Gun and Waggon—The Gun Limber disabled.

(1.) This case can only occur when a gun and its waggon are by themselves; for if two or more guns and waggons are acting together, a waggon limber would be taken for the gun, and then the case would be as No. 6.

(2.) Unlimber and run the gun in rear of waggon.—At this word 2 and 3 bear down the muzzle; 4 and 5 man the wheels; 6, 7, 8, and 9 man the trail; and the gun is run in rear of the waggon, with the trail eye under the rear axletree. Nos. 8 and 9 pass the locking chain through the trail eye. If it will not pass through, it must be brought up at the side; but it is better through the eye or handspike ring.

(3.) Limber up.—Nos. 2 and 3 bear down the muzzle; 4 and 5 man the wheels; 6 and 7 raise the trail. One of the next numbers passes the lock chain of the gun over the axletree of the waggon, from rear to front, across to 8, who will pass it over the axletree from front to rear, and, assisted by 9, will take a turn under the neck of the trail plate and round the returns. It is then secured by its own hook.

(4.) To remove and place the limber boxes.—The limber will be lashed to the side of the waggon body by the numbers on that side on which the limber stands. No. 1 in the shafts; 2 and 4 unlash; 6 and 8 untie the boxes, and slip them a little to the rear. The limber will then be lashed close to the waggon wheel in the centre of the limber, in line with the axletree of the waggon. No. 1 then lets down the shaft-prop. Nos. 2 and 4 mount on the waggon, and 6 and 8 on the footboard of the limber. Nos. 2 and 6 lift one box on the top of the waggon wheel, whence they will be assisted by 3 and 5 to place it on the rear box of the waggon body. Nos. 4 and 8 will then lift on the other box, and, assisted by 7 and 9, place it on the front box of the waggon body, the locks front and rear.

(5.) Dismount the limber.—The limber is now moved forward a little. Nos. 6 and 7 hold up the splinter bar. Nos. 8 and 9 take out the shafts, and lay them down; then relieve 6 and 7 at the splinter bar, who will take hold of the front part of the wheels, and 4 and 5 the rear part, 6 and 7 attending to the linchpins and washers. Nos. 2 and 3 take hold of the rear of the limber, and at the word “Take off the wheels,” 2, 8, 3 and 9 lift, and 4, 6, 5 and 7 take the wheels off. Then the whole is laid on the ground.

(6 and 7.) The waggon boxes are unlashed and the wheels placed, as in Case II.

(8.) The limber body is now turned upside down and placed on the top of the boxes of the waggon limber, axletree to the rear by the whole of the numbers, and secured behind by both of the limber box lashings, and in front of the splinter bar and pitchells by the prolonges or fitting ropes. Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 lashing behind, and 6, 7, 8, and 9 in front. The small box of spare linchpins and washers to be laid on the disabled limber by 8.

(9.) The shafts are then placed, one on each side, between the disabled limber boxes and the guard irons of the waggon body, point to the rear, and secured by the pocket straps.

Case V.—Waggon Limber disabled.

This case is so similar to Case IV. that the details would only be a repetition, except when the word “trail” is used in Case IV. use the word “perch” in this. The waggon body being secured the same as the gun.

In South Africa, the oxen draw from the neck, or, rather, the yoke is laid upon the neck, and is prevented from slipping backward by the hump, which, when the ox presses forward, is pushed strongly against it. The form of the yoke and its furniture is shown on p. 217. The yoke is about 6ft. in length, and 3in. thick. In its centre is a strong staple, through which are passed several turns of reim or hide thong, to lace it to a corresponding ring on the “dissel-boom” (K), or on the “trek touw” (8). Near each end are two mortices, 3in. long, ¾in. wide, and about 1ft. apart, through which to pass the “jeuk skeis,” or yoke keys, which keep it in place on the neck of the ox. The ends should be rounded so as not to chafe the animal. A knobbed head, more or less ornamented, keeps them from slipping through the mortices, and on the outside edge of each key are cut two notches, to receive the throat strap, which is simply a double thong of softened hide, so twisted as to leave a loop at each end. This is hitched to the upper or lower notches to tighten or loosen it, and it may be more nicely adjusted by twisting or untwisting it till it attains the required length. The strap will readily be recognised on p. 217.

When the oxen are to be “inspanned,” the span or team is driven to the waggon, and the nooses of the reims or raw hide halters are thrown over the horns and tightened on the forehead. The oxen are then arranged in pairs, and held by one or more assistants, as seen near waggon No. 9, on p. 298. The driver then leads out the fore oxen, lifts the yoke over the neck of the farthest, hitches the throat strap into the nicks, and then, holding up the yoke with one hand, with the other he draws forward the other ox, and induces him to walk to his proper place under the yoke. The “voor looper,” or boy that leads them, then holds the reims of the fore oxen so as to keep the “trek touw” tolerably tight, while the other oxen are yoked, as seen before waggon No. 2, on p.298 In outspanning the order is reversed, the fore oxen being left to keep the trek rope tight till the very last. An ox requires fully 8ft. to pull in; therefore, a trek touw for twelve oxen must be fully 40ft. long, as the two after oxen will be yoked to the dissel-boom, and require no rope. Our accompanying sketch of Cape oxen in their yokes will sufficiently show the arrangements. A Cape waggon is supposed to be loaded with about 2000lb. of cargo, but 3000lb. is not uncommon, and we have seen a waggon with 4000lb. start as lightly as could be wished, though when it came on bad roads it was too heavy for the oxen. The trek touw is usually of hide rope, but hunters sometimes use chain and sometimes hempen rope, either of which defy the teeth of jackals and hyænas. Chain may, perhaps, gall the sides of the oxen, but we have seen it used on long journeys without bad effect. Hemp is apt to rot, from exposure to alternate wet and excessive dryness, but we have seen it do good service. With a hempen rope, get a sailor to splice in all the rings before you leave the coast. A Hottentot will do well with a hide rope, but not with one composed of hemp.

In Australia, two-wheeled drays, somewhat like the Scotch cart, are used. They will sometimes carry 3000lb. of wool over bad roads. They are very handy, but strain the necks of the pole oxen rather. Sometimes, only two oxen are used, as in our sketch—sometimes, six or more. The yoke lies upon the neck, like the African, but is fastened by iron bows passed up through the yoke and keyed above it, so that, when once an ox is yoked, nothing on earth can free him till the bow is removed. The long bamboo whip of Africa is unknown in Australia. The handle is short, the lash long and heavy, and is often terminated by a bit of silk, to produce a more effective crack.

In many parts of Spain, the yoke is simply laid across the foreheads of the two oxen, and lashed fast to the base of their horns. This is not only a source of great discomfort to the animals, but is an absolute waste of their muscular power; for, strong as the neck of an ox undoubtedly is, that part of the spinal column which forms it cannot with impunity bear the continued heavy strain or the occasional concussions which might without injury be received upon the shoulder.

In some parts of the world the yoke is laid across the back of the head, and is lashed fast to the roots of the horns. This plan is followed by some of the Hispano-Americans, who make use of an enormously long goad, hung in a sling, to drive the cattle with. In addition to the point of the weapon a sharp “dropper,” or bob, is hung on in such a way that, by lowering the shaft of the goad, it may fall end downwards on the bullocks, working too close to be attacked by the point. The preceding illustration will serve to show the nature of this contrivance and the mode of fastening on the yoke.

Some of the Germans adopt a much better plan. They take a broad band of stout leather, so stuffed and padded as to form a cushion, and fit this upon the hump of the ox, as shown in our sketch. In each end of this are stout rings, to which the traces are attached, and there is a slight collar and a belly band to keep it from slipping in its place, but the whole strain comes upon the part best able to support it, i.e., the shoulder hump; and this simple gear has the advantage of being applicable to one or any number, while the yokes can only be used for pairs of oxen. Remember that the prudent as well as the merciful man is merciful to his beast; and if you want an animal to work for you, take especial care that he is not galled nor incommoded by superfluous or ill-fitting gear, nor fretted and irritated by unnecessary chastisement, inflicted in such a manner that he cannot understand it. If it is necessary to flog him, take care to do it in such a manner that he can escape the punishment only by going to his work, and discontinue it as soon as he really does so.

Little good could result from our describing the various modes by which bullocks are harnessed in different parts of the world, as the explorer will, in great measure, have to be guided in the selection of the way in which he intends to work his teams by the description of animal with which he is about to deal. Humped cattle draw efficiently by either the German plan, before described, or the yoke and pin plan shown in the annexed illustration (A), because a much larger amount of pressure comes on the anterior point of the hump, or bearing point of the yoke piece, than in any other direction, the pin merely keeping the neck of the bullock in the proper position, and regulating the line of draught; whilst humpless cattle require, in lieu of a collar, either a neck bow, as shown at B, or some other mode of adjustment, by which neck and shoulder power can be brought to bear. The Indian, African, and Eastern cattle work according to the former rule, whilst the English and Australian draw by the latter. The Australian ox bow, as we have before stated, is usually composed of iron, bent into the required form; whilst that in general use throughout the western counties of England is made from a pole of tough wood, commonly elm, moulded to the requisite shape by the aid of heat. The yoke should be made from some tough light timber, and the neck bows of some wood not liable to splinter.

CHAPTER X.
HARNESS AND PACK ANIMALS.

Whether mules or horses are selected for waggon and cart draught too much attention cannot be paid to the arrangement and fitting of the harness they are intended to work in; and, although the pattern will vary somewhat not only in every country, but in every province, the traveller passes through, the leading principles remain much the same, and whether the traces are of rope chain or leather, the office they perform remains unaltered. Collars, let the pattern be what it will, require especial care in fitting, as nothing tends more effectually to disable a harness animal (mule or horse) than a collar carelessly or injudiciously applied. Every animal in the team should have its own, and on first selecting the collar for fitting so put it on that the collar strap can be buckled up to the last hole in the tongue strap. When you have done this there should be room enough at the bottom of the collar in front of the animal’s chest to pass the open hand when laid flat freely forward and back between the inside of the collar and the animal’s neck. When new collars are found to fit uneasily and chafe in particular places, it is a common expedient among mule teamsters to lay the ill-fitting collar in water, and allow it to soak for the night; it is then taken out wet and fitted to the animal’s neck, to which it at once adapts itself. Much trouble is often experienced on long and toilsome expeditions from loss of condition and leanness of the animals causing the saddles and collars to fit badly and, consequently, cause severe sores. Take, therefore, plenty of curled hair stuffing with you, in order that deficiencies in the padding may be from time to time made good. When a collar is too large to be adapted to a thin neck by stuffing, it will be well to cut a portion out of its centre at once, which can be done by first measuring the excess of space roughly, then take the collar off the animal; lay it on a board or table, and cut out evenly as much as is thought requisite, and if on testing the collar it is found still too large, cut out a little more from each side of the incision until the collar takes its proper bearing, but take care that a proper medium is observed regarding the position of the lower end, or bow, of the collar. If it hangs too far down the movements of the muscles of the shoulder are interfered with. If it presses too far upwards the windpipe becomes unduly pressed on. Some persons use what is called “crown pads” for the top, or ridge, of the neck, under where the narrow portion, or crown, of the collar rests. These are sometimes made from sheepskin with the wool on, but it will be better to get some moderately stout but smooth and soft leather. Cut this into pad pieces, each of which may be 13in. long and 8in. wide. Make a cut at each end of the pieces about 2½in. from the end of the pad, extending it to about an inch from the centre. Then turn your pad, and cut from the opposite side until only the inch of sound leather remains between the two cuts. Treat the other end of the pad in the same way, and it will be fit for use.

A very tolerable makeshift collar and pair of hames may be made as follows: Collect a good quantity of reed, either wheat or marsh reed; cut off all the heads, or tops, leaving nothing but the clear shafts of the plant. Make these up in a bundle, and place them to soak in water for one night. Measure the horse’s or mule’s neck for size of intended collar with a piece of cord; lay this on the ground in the form and of the size of the collar; then close to the string, as it is placed on an even spot, drive in a double row of long pegs at about 6in. apart; then proceed to lay in your reed between the two walls of pegs, so disposing the reeds that too many ends do not appear at any one place; continue to lay in reeds, working them round the ends of the oval and thumping them well down in their places, until sufficient substance has been gained for the fore part of the collar; then, with fine twine, proceed to bind the reeds firmly together by lashing them spirally. Now make a second reed collar just as you did the first, only let it be larger and more bulky; and, with a packing needle and twine, sew the two collars together, one on the other—that first made on the top. Now try the united collars on the animal, the large collar being next the shoulder. See that there is plenty of space below the windpipe in front of the chest when it is made to fit at both top and bottom. Line the inside of the bearing or large collar with soft pliant leather laid over a layer of soft moss, fine cocoa fibre, fur of animals, or anything else you can get calculated for stuffing purposes. A piece of hide laid on and sewn wet will cover the outsides of both collars; but whilst it is drying the hames should be fastened in the groove formed by stitching the two collars together.

The hames are made as follows: Get two well-seasoned pieces of tough strong wood; cut them to the shape of the curve and length of the collar, and fashion them as shown in the annexed illustration. A is the trace hame-tug, formed of a loop and several turns of raw hide; A is the hame strap fork, below which an oblong square hole is cut for the strip of hide forming the hame strap to pass through; C is the lower end of the hame cut into hook form, to admit of its being securely lashed with hide strips to its fellow on the opposite side.

Breast straps may be used in lieu of a collar and hames.

When starting on an expedition take plenty of harness leather with you. Raw hide and strips of sinew are admirable for repairs, but good tanned and curried leather is needed for the harness itself.

The illustration on next page represents a very useful and plain set of mule harness, and also the way in which a long rope or lasso is used for securing a refractory mule to the side of a waggon whilst the harness is being put on. Some mules are so dangerously skilful in the use of their fore and hind feet, that even an accomplished prizefighter might view their feats in the art of attack with envy. To guard against the effects of this objectionable skill, we proceed as follows: Throw the running noose end of your lasso over the mule’s head, and let it settle well over his neck; then edge him quietly away until he is standing stem and stern with the waggon on the near or left-hand side; then, keeping well before your mule, pass the free end of the lasso between the upper spokes of the near fore wheel; draw out your end by walking backwards with it, keeping up a steady strain until you walk in a wide circle well outside the range of mules’ heels; slip dexterously behind the wheel and tail of the waggon, keeping your lasso tight all the while; then pass your lasso end, from without, inwards between the spokes of the near hind wheel; haul taut and belay. There are very few mules that cannot be successfully handled in this way. The guide as to the proper height of the lasso is given by the point of elbow and the line of the stifle joint. If the mule is a small one, choose lower spokes in the wheel than for a tall, long-legged animal.

The adaptation of hames to collars is almost as important as the fitting of the collars to the animals. Hames are sometimes made of wood fitted with iron work, but they are far better when made from good tough wrought iron. Here we again say, beware of “malleable cast.” During the rough work of a campaign hames are constantly getting broken, particularly at the union of the ring point and the blade of the hame. The old pattern used by our horse artillery and field batteries was especially objectionable, as the point of union (shown in the above illustration at A) was so unmechanically effected that incessant trouble and constant breakage was the result. We have submitted to the Horse Guards authorities that which we believe to be a far more durable and efficient pattern (as shown at B, p. 460). The hames now in use are certainly better than they were at the commencement of the Crimean war; but those which we used during our long forced marches in India during the mutiny were very far from being perfect.

Much mischief is done to team animals by having bits of insufficient substance and solidity. See that they are of sufficient diameter to prevent cutting, and that they are long enough from cheek to cheek to prevent pressure on the angles of the mouth and lips. See also that the bit is so attached to the headstall that the corners of the mouth are not drawn up by it. Let the throat latch be long enough to see plenty of daylight under, or, by drawing on the headstall, the poll of the head may be severely rubbed and a poll evil established. The nature of this injury will be fully dealt with under the head of “Veterinary Surgery.” If bearing reins are used at all, see that they are slack. A good store of anti-friction pads will be found of the greatest value on the march to keep such portions of the harness as are found to rub the skin of any animal in the team from doing further mischief. These are made of very soft pliant leather, stuffed with soft curled hair. Seven inches long by 4½in. wide, and 2½in. thick, will be found a convenient size. They are secured between the strap causing irritation and the skin by bits of thong fastened to their backs for the purpose. Galls from saddles or collars are not unfrequently caused by some hard and uneven point of bearing. When this is the case, take a long sharp-pointed instrument, pass it through the leather or woollen, and, by working it about and pushing in every direction, force the stuffing back until a cavity much larger than the gall is formed; thump the covering over and into the cavity well with the round end of a tool handle until it fits the injured spot without pressure. Never allow teamsters or drivers to tie knots in straps of any kind with a view to shortening them. Insist on more holes being punched for the buckle tongue, or the cutting of the strap to the proper length. Knotted straps and serious galls go hand in hand. In adjusting your traces to the swingle trees, see that there is length enough given them when slack for the swingle tree to reach just sufficiently far down the back of the hind leg to cross half-way between the point of the hock and the hollow of the heel. As the trace is tightened, there will then be enough space for the animal to move his legs freely in. Watch him as he walks off, and see that nothing touches him behind at full stride. There are more kickers made by ill-adjusted swingle trees than any other cause. The weaker the animal is, the more liable he is to get his hind legs battered by the bar, as he lacks spirit and energy to keep well clear of it. The bar is, however, his enemy from that time, and it is difficult to make him forget past sorrows.

Waggon chains of one sort and another often snap when it is highly inconvenient to repair them. Keep, therefore, in your “odd and end” box a good number of union links, made as shown in the above illustration. They are forged rather flat, stouter in proportion than the chain they are intended to unite, in order to guard them against opening. A leather thong or tie, with a toggle end, is passed through the slots at the two ends of the union, in order that the links may not come out when the chain is slack. The looped ends of ropes are conveniently attached to chains, or chains to standing rings, by these union links. The illustration on p. 462 represents one of them uniting the ends of two chains.

Pack animals are of the greatest service and value to the explorer, as they travel easily through tracts of country which are impassable for wheeled carriages of all descriptions. Horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, oxen, elephants, camels, dromedaries, lamas, goats, and dogs are all, more or less, used as pack animals in different countries; and no two can be found in which the pack saddle and its gear will exactly correspond. The nature of the ground to be passed over, and the description of load to be carried, will in great measure call for some special arrangement in the form and adjustment of the gear. For the use of a well-organised exploring or hunting party, provided with horses or mules, we know of no pack saddle equal to that described and figured at pp. 25 and 36. Saddles of this description, although admirably adapted for carrying the well-made and evenly-formed bags of the explorer, would not answer to the requirements of the professional packer, who carries objects of every imaginable shape, from a bundle of pick-heads, or a case of bottled ale, to a barrel of powder. For the safe transport of such matters as these no saddle is better than the Hispano-American pack saddle.

No people in the world understand the management and packing of mules as well as the Spaniards and their descendants. The foundation of the Spanish pack saddle may be said to be the “aparejo,” which is, so to speak, a framework for the back of the mule composed entirely of hide. Its form is represented at A in our illustration entitled “Horse Equipments.” Each side flap of the aparejo is composed of a double layer of hide, with space sufficient between the layers to introduce an efficient stuffing of hay, dry moss, fibre, or other stuffing material. The cushions or side pads, when stuffed, should be about 3ft. 8in. long by 2ft. 8in. wide. Each flap and side cushion will thus constitute one side of the saddle body. These, when stitched together at the top, will form a sort of hollow ridge within which the backbone will rest free from pressure and friction. The aparejos of the Andalusian muleteers who, with their mules, accompanied us from Spain to the Crimea had layers of small twigs disposed between the stuffing of the panels and the covering of hide, so that the “riata,” or rope used in securing the load, was prevented from cutting grooves in the padding. Each of these aparejos weighed, when new and dry, 35lb. On the inside of each cushion leather a hole is left, through which the material constituting the stuffing can at any time be got at. The careful packer will constantly avail himself of this orifice, in order that such portions of stuffing as may become shifted and worked up into hard lumps by the movements consequent on travel may be redistributed and evenly disposed of. The above illustration represents this aparejo when placed on the back of the mule.