Marks of Chelsea porcelain:

Derby—Soft Paste.—The Derby china—and the “Crown Derby,” now most known—was famous in its day—from about 1750 to the end of the century—and from Derby, in England, it was sold to a very wide extent over Europe. Specimens are met with in Holland, Italy, Spain, etc. The factory was established by William Duesbury, and was, after his death, carried on by his son; by a Mr. Reeve, who married the widow; and, in 1815, it went into the possession of Robert Bloor. The works were not finally closed till 1848. Duesbury, who purchased the moulds and property of both the Bow and the Chelsea factories, carried on the works at Derby and at Chelsea for some time; and much of the porcelain made at that time is called Chelsea-Derby. The early mark of the Derby was a capital D, and the Chelsea-Derby mark is the same D, with the Chelsea anchor in its middle. The crown with the anchor, or with crossed lines and dots, and sometimes with the D under it, was used after the patronage of George III. had been extended to the works (about 1777), and is now most commonly found upon the best work of this factory. After 1815 “Bloor’s” name is found upon the work.

During the best portion of Duesbury’s time, dinner, dessert, breakfast, and tea services, of great richness and splendor, were made; and at that time the patronage of nobility and gentry was more generous than it had been to any other English factory. Duesbury carried to great perfection the combination of a rich blue with gold, not only in his vases, urns, etc., but also as edges to his dinner and tea services. “He has brought the gold and blue to a degree of beauty never before obtained in England, and the drawing and coloring of the flowers are truly elegant,” writes a tourist in 1777.

In the examples I have had an opportunity of seeing, this is true; but one is obliged to feel in this, as in almost all the fine china of England, a lack of perfection and delicacy in form and modeling.

Groups and figures were made in great variety and number at Derby, upon which no splendor or expense of gold and color was spared. These are found in nearly all the good collections of England and the Continent. At this time—the end of the last century—it was much the fashion for ladies to paint, for their own use and for gifts, single pieces, and indeed whole sets; and the white china of Derby was often sold for that purpose. These amateur productions occasionally find their way into the shops, and naturally perplex the collector.

Duesbury’s prices were not high. In an invoice extant we find:

Great care was taken that nothing but perfect work went from, the factory; this kept the character of the Derby works high. But it filled their shops with many “seconds.” When Mr. Bloor came into possession, of the factory, these seconds were sold by auction in various parts of England; and this greatly injured the name and fame of “Derby,” from which it did not recover.

The Bernal sale records of Chelsea-Derby and Derby:

None of these were the best work, and brought but corresponding prices.

Marks used on Derby porcelain:

Lowestoft—Soft and mostly Hard Paste.—Much uncertainty, discussion, and perplexity, have prevailed concerning the porcelain made at Lowestoft, on the eastern coast of England, near Yarmouth.

About 1756, as is agreed to by both Marryat and Chaffers, a gentleman named Luson attempted a manufactory of pottery and porcelain there, which was not successful. Shortly after another was attempted, which for a time succeeded well; in this Mr. Robert Browne was the principal man. Pottery and porcelain were made here in great variety and in considerable quantities—much of it for exportation, and especially for the Turkish markets; and some of it appears to have been marked with a crescent, like that made at Worcester. But, as a rule, no marks, either of the factory or the painter, were used at Lowestoft.

Not only was pottery, or earthenware, made here, but the early porcelain was soft ware. Mr. Chaffers states that, about 1775, hard paste was made there in close imitation of Chinese. He states, also, that some of the heavier pieces, like tureens and punch-bowls, had a sort of uneven surface, as if it had been patted into shape by the hand or a tool. This patted or uneven surface is a defect; but as this is found also in heavy pieces of porcelain, which are Chinese beyond question, it ceases to be a distinguishing mark of Lowestoft work—if, indeed, it is a mark of it at all, which one may be permitted still to doubt.

Some of the work reached great perfection, and the egg-shell cups, etc., made there are said to be equal to any others made in Europe. Among the peculiar decorations were hares’ heads for handles, fruits for knobs of covers, doubled handles to mugs, braided or crossed, which are asserted to be quite distinct from Oriental designs.

“Another striking variety is the fan and feather pattern, in imitation of Capo di Monte, painted in purple, blue, and red, in the form of basins and ewers. Many of these vases are elaborately painted, with diaper-work in gold, and colors, and escutcheons of flowers, and small landscapes. Among all the flowers and exquisite floral patterns the rose predominates, and it is remarkable how easily the peculiar touch of the artist—whose name was Rose—can be detected. Another style of decoration peculiar to Lowestoft is a rococo scroll or running border of flowers, slightly raised upon the plain surface in opaque white enamel.”

In the collection of Mr. J. V. L. Pruyn, at Albany, is quite a large dinner-service with the rose-decoration, which we can easily believe to be true Lowestoft. The colors are not brilliant, nor is the glaze perfect. The paste lacks the whiteness of the best Chinese, and is lighter than any true Chinese porcelain I have seen. Some persons in this country think that many or most of the dinner and tea services ordered in the United States during the last century, and which it was supposed were made in China, really came from Lowestoft through Liverpool or Bristol; among them those sets which bore initials in a sort of shield, and were finished on the edges with a deep-blue band studded with gold stars. It seems certain that this kind of decoration was done at Lowestoft; it is equally certain that it was also done in China, from designs sent out there. I have myself some pieces so decorated, which were imported direct from China to New Haven about the end of the last century.

The perplexity and discussion existing as to the hard-paste porcelain made at Lowestoft have been increased by the statements made by Mr. Marryat and Mr. Jewett, in England, that much white undecorated porcelain was imported into Lowestoft from China, and was painted in England. Some of the forms and decorations made at Lowestoft are so like those made in China that it has been almost impossible to distinguish them. To a person not interested, this will seem a matter of the very slightest consequence; to a china-fancier quite the contrary. Sydney Smith, you will remember, said it was strange, but quite true, that “there were persons living who spoke disrespectfully of the equator, but we should bear with them and pity them.” This advice we must apply to those who care nothing about porcelain.

Mr. Chaffers, in his work, “Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain,” presents very strong and varied testimony to show that no white porcelain was imported from China and painted at Lowestoft; that the hard paste made at Lowestoft is quite different, and not so hard as that made in China, and need not be confounded with it. My own belief is that much of what is called “Lowestoft,” both in England and in the United States, was made in China.

We engrave (Fig. 149) a pretty tea-service from Mr. Wales’s collection, which will recall to many of our readers what they have seen on their grandmothers’ tables any time in this century. It is a style of decoration which was done at Lowestoft, and also in China.

No marks were used on the Lowestoft.

The next illustration (Fig. 150), from the collection of John V. L. Pruyn, Esq., of Albany, is characteristic as showing the use of the rose at Lowestoft. No better example of it probably exists in this country. The paste is peculiar, and not like much which is called Lowestoft. The plate is sixteen and a half inches in diameter, the colors are good, and the painting is carefully done.

Worcester—Soft Paste.—At Worcester, in the year 1751, the Worcester Porcelain Company was formed, which has continued from that day to this. Dr. Wall, a physician and chemist, has the credit of being the originator of this the largest and most enduring of English porcelain-works. The clergy of the cathedral were greatly interested, and had much to do with the success of the company.

In the beginning, it seems, there was a large production of tea and breakfast services for domestic use; and much of this was like the Chinese blue and white, copied from Oriental designs. Afterward a trade sprung up with Turkey, and much china was made for that market. Many of the early marks, and particularly upon the Oriental designs, were copies of those found upon pieces of Chinese porcelain; among which the square seal-mark (given further on) is most often met with. The crescent, which is a well-known Worcester mark, most likely came into use when the production of porcelain for the Saracen markets became an important business. It is curious to note how very large a demand for fine china came from Turkey at that day, and it exists still. It is now some four years ago that I found, in Holland, a large selection of high-priced china had just been made for Constantinople, and I was told then that there was always a good demand there, and at good prices. The Turk is not altogether abominable, though he is a most disturbing quantity in the politics of Europe (1876 to 1878).

The blue, so much in use in the early decoration, was not a good color, being inclined toward black; but afterward this was greatly improved—approaching the fine cobalt color, though it never reached the exquisite “celestial blue” of Nanking.

A very large production at Worcester was in making copies of vases and other work done at Dresden, upon which birds, insects, and flowers, were painted with great care; so much so that, if the paste were not different, it might not be easy to distinguish them from the Dresden. The crossed swords and caduceus (see Dresden marks) were also used as marks on these.

It is quite clear that those things which imitated what other nations did, sold best at that time in England; and this, more than poverty of invention, we may suppose induced those excellent English artists to copy rather than create. Chaffers mentions the following as the most noted painters at Worcester: Pennington, figures; Astle, flowers; Davis, exotic birds; Webster, landscapes and flowers; Barber, shells; Brewer, landscapes; Baxter, Lowe, and Cole, figure-subjects; Billingsly, flowers.

Printing in black upon the porcelain was practised at Worcester to a considerable extent; and mugs with pictures of Frederick the Great seem to have been popular at that day, and are much sought for now. The portraits of George II. and III. were also in demand, as well as many others.

The flower-painting upon this, as upon all other European porcelain, was naturalistic—copied, as nearly as possible, from Nature. Good as much of it is beyond question, it fails to give to most persons the gratification which comes from the Oriental treatment. The last is decoration, the first is imitation.

The rich dark blues, lighted up with much gilding, is a characteristic of some of the best Worcester work, as well as that made at Derby.

Without reaching the fine translucency of the Dresden and Sèvres paste or body, that at Worcester was a great advance upon the other English factories, inasmuch as it was strong and durable; and the glaze was also better; it did not “craze”—shoot into cracks—like much of that made at Derby.

In 1783 the works went into the possession of the Messrs. Flight. In 1793 they were carried on by Flight and Barr. In 1840 they were controlled by Chamberlain; and at the present time (1876) they are in charge of Mr. K. W. Binns, who employs a great force, and produces much excellent work, and some which may be called exquisite. His imitations of Limoges enamels and Chinese ivory-work are perfect; as it seems to me, quite too good. I should like to see such perfection applied to genuine work and to original design. He has also made a specialty of reproducing curious examples of Japanese, Chinese, and Corean porcelain, sometimes identically and sometimes in modified forms. We engrave (Fig. 151) a fine example of the latter from the collection of Messrs. Tiffany and Company, of New York.

Among our illustrations (see Fig. 148) are two plates containing portraits of Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Dürer. The colors are red, brown, and gold; also a teacup and saucer, most delightfully and richly painted. These are in the possession of G. W. Wales, Esq., of Boston. In Fig. 152 is a teapot in rich blue and gold, part of a set belonging to Mr. W. C. Prime. This has the mark + of Bristol, but, as it is soft paste, it is probably Worcester.

Marks of Worcester porcelain:

The marks used at the present time at Worcester (1876) are as follows:

Chamberlain’s—Worcester.—In 1786 Robert and Humphrey Chamberlain began a porcelain-factory at Worcester. Robert had learned the business in the old Worcester works, and was an accomplished man. Some splendidly-decorated porcelain was made by them; and a breakfast-set, made for Lord Nelson, is quite famous. Pieces of it are found in collections. The Chamberlains employed the best painters, and paid high wages. Their expensive work was made rich with much gold.

A dessert-service in the possession of Mr. W. C. Prime, of New York, shows this, and is brilliant and effective. We engrave one of the plates (Fig. 152). The birds are tropical, and fine in color, and the plants are bordered with gold. The Chamberlains’ factories are now incorporated with the “Worcester Company,” under the charge of Mr. Binns.

Marks of Chamberlain porcelain:

Plymouth—Hard Porcelain.—The first true or hard-paste porcelain made in England was made by William Cookworthy, who, being greatly interested in porcelain-making, established a factory at Plymouth about 1760. He seems to have discovered the true kaolin clays in Cornwall, the beds from which so much of the English clays are now taken. He took out patents for “a kind of porcelain newly invented, composed of Moorstone or growan, and growan clay,” found in Devon and Cornwall. He advertised for painters, and a Frenchman named Soqui seems to have been very skillful. Bone, also, was one of his best painters. The ware made was perfect hard porcelain, but it was much more costly than the ordinary soft porcelain of England, and could not compete with it for price. Many of the pieces were warped or crazed in the strong heat necessarily used, and the loss in this way was great. Besides this, the good public did not care to pay high for what then had no prestige, and was really no more beautiful than the soft-paste porcelain of England. As the first hard-paste porcelain made in England, and as but little of it was made, it is now valued by china-collectors, and it sells for high prices.

Some highly-finished dinner and tea services made there, like the Nanking blue, are excellent, and are much valued. Vases and other pieces painted in colors, with birds and other highly-colored designs, were also produced in the same styles as those made on the Continent. Figures, also, then much in fashion, were modeled here, like those made at Chelsea and elsewhere.

Cookworthy spent much money, and made none, and he came to his end. At last, in 1774, he sold his interests and patents to Champion, of Bristol, and the work ceased.

The mark used was the sign of the planet Jupiter—very nearly the figure 4. It was somewhat varied.

Marks used on Plymouth porcelain:

Bristol—Hard Paste.—The production at Bristol grew out of that at Plymouth, of which we have given a brief account. Richard Champion, merchant, of Bristol, was a man of much activity and ability. He took up the making of porcelain with eagerness, and is said to have produced both soft and hard china at his factory. The hard paste was used after his purchase of the patents, etc., of the Plymouth factory in 1774. Besides some very indifferent porcelain, some very beautiful work was made at Bristol; and for two or three years there was much activity there. But Champion, having no technical knowledge or skill, and but insufficient capital, soon failed, and the work ceased in 1777. He emigrated to South Carolina, where he died in 1791.

So little of this Bristol hard porcelain was made that it now brings great prices.

Blue and white tea and dessert services, in the style of the Chinese, were made there, as were many articles decorated with flowers. Walpole mentions, in his list of prices, “a cup and saucer, white, with green festoons of flowers, of Bristol porcelain.”

Marryat refers to a fine tea and coffee service made for Edmund Burke in 1774, who presented it to a Mrs. Smith, who had entertained him during his election. He says: “The china is rich in gilding, the design elegant, and the execution good.”

Mrs. James, of Cambridge, has one or two cups and saucers of blue hard paste marked with the + in gold—not in blue, which was the usual mark of Bristol; but there is little doubt that these are true Bristol.

Marks found on Bristol porcelain:

Pinxton, Derbyshire—Soft Paste.—About 1793 to 1794 a small manufactory of porcelain was started at Pinxton by John Coke and William Billingsly. This last had been a practical potter and an excellent painter of flowers at Derby. He had some secrets for mixing his paste, which secured great translucency, but it was very tender, and easily damaged or destroyed in the kiln. This peculiar paste made by him at Pinxton, afterward at Nantgarw or Nantgarow, and at Swansea, breaks with a granulated fracture, and is quite different in this respect from any other. A favorite decoration was what was termed the “French sprig,” composed of forget-me-nots and gold sprigs scattered over the plate. Flowers and landscapes also were painted, and the dishes were usually finished with a blue or a gold edge. No marks were used, though a letter P is sometimes attributed to this factory.

Nantgarw—Hard Porcelain.—This porcelain-factory in Glamorganshire was started in 1813 by the same Billingsly. He made a clear and beautiful paste, and his productions, whether made at Pinxton, Nantgarw, or Swansea, are highly valued.

The mark was nearly always Nantgarw, impressed.

Swansea.—Earthen-ware was made at Swansea as early as 1750 in considerable quantities. But it was not till near the end of the century that porcelain was produced there by Messrs. Haines and Company.

The porcelain subsequently made (about 1814, and later) is now much prized. About 1820 the Swansea works were purchased by Mr. Rose, and all was concentrated at Coalport.

Both at Nantgarw and Swansea very free and finely-colored roses appear on the work, probably done by Billingsly. But little of either of these factories exists.

Marks used on Swansea porcelain:

Turner (Thomas) erected a porcelain-factory at Caughley, near Bridgnorth, in 1775. The Caughley works were commenced in 1751 by Mr. Browne, of Caughley Hall, in a small way, for earthen-ware, and reached little distinction until they came into the hands of Turner. Turner made excellent porcelain, and has the credit of introducing the famous “Willow-pattern”—copied from the Nanking blue; also the “blue Dragon”—into England. The principal marks are as follows.

Marks of Caughley and of Turner:

Coalport, in Colebrook Dale, Shropshire.—Works were established here by Mr. John Rose, about 1780 to 1790. The Caughley works were subsequently incorporated with these, as were the Swansea and Nantgarw works. The factory is still in operation at Coalport, where fine porcelain is produced.

Marks used at Coalport:

Herculaneum.—This pottery was established near Liverpool in 1790, by Richard Abbey; about 1796 it went into the hands of Messrs. Worthington, Humble, and Holland. Porcelain was made here, though earthen-ware was the principal production. On nearly all the porcelain the name “Herculaneum” is either printed or stamped. The works ceased wholly about the year 1841, having passed through a number of hands. The site is now occupied by the Herculaneum Dock, at Liverpool.

Shelton, or New Hall—Hard Paste.—A small factory of porcelain grew up at Shelton, out of the wreck of Champion’s works at Bristol. Champion appears to have sold his patents and good-will to a partnership of potters about 1777, and Champion himself became their superintendent for a time at Tunstall. Afterward the works were removed to the New Hall, at Shelton.

The work done was hard paste, and much like that made at Bristol, the same workmen and processes being employed. At first hard porcelain was made, which was stamped with an “N.” After 1810 soft paste was used, and the mark then was “New Hall,” in a circle.

The factory went out of existence in 1825.

Rockingham.—Some admirable porcelain was made at the Swinton pottery, under the patronage of the Marquis of Rockingham, upon whose estate the factory stood. About 1807 the works went into the hands of the two Bramelds, who made porcelain of the best description, sparing no pains or cost to bring it to perfection. Of course, they could make no money—it is not easy when one gives more than one gets. Some of the pieces of “Rockingham” rank as high as any made in England. Specimens are rare in England, and I know of none in this country. The works ceased in 1842.

The mark was a griffin, the Rockingham crest:

Spode.—Some of the richest and most beautiful English porcelain I have ever seen is marked “Spode.” A tea-set, in Fig. 152 (cup and saucer, and sugar-bowl), is perfect in form, paste, and decoration; the bands are in high colors, and the flowers, which appear black in the engraving, are of a subtile blue.

The sugar-bowl on the right, in the same plate (Fig. 152), is highly and richly colored. No black-and-white print can give anything of the splendor of color of some pieces of Spode I saw in England, or of the piece here figured, which is from Mr. Prime’s collection.

There seems to have been no fashion or “rage” for this delightful work in England—just why, it is not easy to explain; consequently, prices have not risen beyond the means of ordinary mortals.

The first “ ‘Siah Spode” worked as an apprentice with Mr. Whieldon, of Fenton, in 1749, at 2s. 3d. or 2s. 6d. per week, “if he deserved it.” When he became his own man, in 1754, he got 7s. 6d. per week—quite a different wages-tale from what is now told at Worcester.

His son, Josiah Spode, began the porcelain fabric about the year 1800, at Stoke, under the firm-name of Spode, Son, and Copeland. He is said to have introduced bones into the paste—now in general use in soft porcelain.

In 1833 the works were purchased by Alderman W. T. Copeland. In 1843 the firm-name was Copeland and Garrett. Afterward, Alderman Copeland alone was again the proprietor. His mark was two crossed C’s, with the name Copeland beneath:

The works are now conducted under the name of W. T. Copeland and Sons, and the mark is nearly the same, the only difference being that the crossed C’s are ornamented.

The Copelands are noted for the excellence of the style and finish of their higher grades of porcelain, in which they are surpassed by no other English house. One of their specialties is jeweled porcelain, in which jewels are represented by colored enamels with fine effect. We give an example of this in Fig. 153, from the collection of Messrs. Tiffany and Company.

Mr. Francis Place, a gentleman of Yorkshire, made porcelain late in the 1600’s or early in the 1700’s. A few examples of it only are known to exist, and it probably was made rather as an experiment, and did not reach a commercial circulation.

H. and R. Daniell, of Stoke and Shelton, made fine porcelain and stoneware as early as 1826. Some of this porcelain is highly praised by Chaffers. It is doubtful if we have any of it in the United States.

Wedgwoods.—The old house of Wedgwood, founded by Josiah—of whom I speak in another place—is still in active service, and has in these later years produced porcelain of great excellence.

Minton’s works, at Stoke-upon-Trent, are now very extensive. Not only is porcelain made there in great variety, but earthen-ware and tiles largely.

The factory was established in 1791, by Thomas Minton. Some of the most elaborate pieces of porcelain-work are now made there. The mark is “Minton,” stamped on the pieces.

Among the principal artists in the Messrs. Mintons’ employ is M. Solon, formerly of Sèvres, who has produced some exquisite vases in pâte-sur-pâte—a method which consists in working, upon a dark body or paste, designs in a white or lighter paste. This, being semi-transparent, admits of delicate shading and modeling. This fascinating and finished style of work originated, so far as we know, in France, where some admirable pieces have been made, more perfect even than those by M. Solon. The vases by him, which were exhibited in Philadelphia in 1876, and which were sold to Sir Richard Wallace for six hundred guineas, have a deep olive-green body, upon which the figures seem floating, as if they had just appeared from the dark, or might at any moment sink into it. The mystery and strength of color no one can fathom or explain, nor can one at all put into words the ineffable satisfaction which one receives from such work as this. It is gratifying to know that two pairs of these vases were bought in this country—one by the Philadelphia Industrial Museum, and one by Henry Gibson, Esq., of that city.

The example which we engrave (Fig. 154) is from the collection of Messrs. Tiffany and Company, of New York. The ground is a luminous blue, the figures in a delicate white.

Although M. Solon has transferred his labors to England, he must be regarded as the outcome rather of the French than of the English soil.

Another feature of the Minton productions is the imitation of cloisonné work, using porcelain instead of metal, and painting on it with colors mixed with opaque enamels, as is practised also in China. We give a fine representation in Fig. 155.

The technical excellence of the modern English porcelain is very great, but it is not remarkable for originality of design. The tea and dinner services shown at the Philadelphia Exhibition were great in number, variety, and excellence. We give illustrations of some pieces made by Messrs. Brown-Westhead, Moore and Company (Figs. 156 and Fig. 157), which were satisfactory.

Messrs. Bromfield and Son also had some excellent examples of dinner-porcelain. The excellence of the paste and the finish were notable in all of the displays by the many English exhibitors.

In such an exhibition one looks, of course, for pieces made specially to catch the eye and excite surprise, which might be called the gymnastics of art; and one is usually gratified. The exhibition was rich with them, and, of course, they demanded attention, and achieved their purpose.

The largest and most varied exhibition was made by Messrs. Daniells and Son, of London; and they had collected their work from many potters, some of them among the most distinguished of England at the present time.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE PORCELAINS OF NORTHERN EUROPE.

The two secrets which help to explain this singular success are these: This necessary warfare with Nature has made a hardy, a patient, and a frugal people. Not only has this people conquered and subdued the land—it has also conquered and subdued the sea, and has drawn stores of wealth from both. So it has come to pass that one hundred thousand men were engaged, in the last century, in the fisheries, and a common saw was that “the foundations of Amsterdam were laid on herring-bones.”

But these fisheries created a class of men who were ready to rove the ocean in search of good or gold. Her daring navigators soon followed Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope, and in due time succeeded to the trade of the East, which she held for over two centuries, and out of which she gained untold wealth; with which she built cities and castles and churches; with which she paid artists; with which she stocked her houses with the finest porcelains of the East.

Thus, from that early day, a great love for fine porcelain has existed in the “Low Countries”—what we now know as Holland and Belgium. At the present time no field bears a better yield for the gleaner who seeks fine examples of old porcelain, and especially of the Oriental, than these countries. Thousands upon thousands of porcelains were imported into Holland after the year 1640, whence they were distributed over Europe. But Holland could not hold her monopoly of trade; France and England sought to grasp it, too, and England succeeded. During the last century England has steadily drawn the trade of the East to herself, and Holland has lost what England has gained.

In the many changes consequent upon this, many stores of good porcelain gathered in Holland have gradually come to be sold to persons who wanted them more than the Dutch did.

Out of this great trade with the Orientals it is easy to see that the Dutch should come to be connoisseurs and lovers of porcelain. It is also easy to see that a sufficient interest should spring up there, after the discovery of true porcelain at Dresden, to induce persons to attempt the manufacture in Holland. This was stimulated during the Seven Years’ War, when the works at Meissen (Dresden) were closed, and for a time broken up. Then in Holland, as well as in other countries of Europe, there was an opportunity. The love for porcelain had grown great after the discoveries at Dresden, and the demand for it was vastly increased. The disturbances in Saxony, amounting to prohibition of the manufacture, gave other countries a possible chance to compete with the advantages of Saxony, which otherwise were overwhelming. Still, in Holland no great commercial success was reached. In none of these northern countries has the making of fine porcelain been an assured success. This is owing to many causes, among which we may point to—

1. The genius of the people does not impel them.

2. The clay and the wood and the coal are not at their doors.

3. Other nations have taken the lead and driven them from the markets of the world, sometimes from their own.

In the Low Countries we may mention as places where the manufacture was attempted—with, however, only a fictile life: Weesp, Loosdrecht, Arnheim, Amsterdam, Amstel—old and new—The Hague, Tournay, Brussels, Luxemburg, Lille (now in France).

Weesp—Hard Paste.—The first effort was made at Weesp, not far from Amsterdam, about 1764, during the Seven Years’ War. For a short time, until 1771, fine and white porcelain was made here, but not in great quantities, and the attempt was not a commercial success.

The marks were: