Selene, the Moon, appears in many of the scenes already described under Helios, as on the Blacas krater. She is depicted under two types, either on horseback^[949] or driving a chariot like Helios,^[950] both as a single figure and in other scenes; and she is sometimes characterised by the lunar disc or crescent. Besides the scenes already referred to, she appears on horseback at the birth of Dionysos^[951] and at the pursuit of Medeia by Jason.^[952] The magic arts used by Thessalian witches to draw down the moon from heaven are also the subject of a vase-painting,^[953] where two women essay to perform this feat by means of a rope, addressing her, “O Lady Moon!”

Stars are occasionally represented with an astronomical reference, as on the Blacas krater, where they appear in the form of youths, or grouped with Helios, Selene, and Eos.^[954] Phosphoros, the Morning Star, may be identified in this connection, represented as a youth running^[955]; but in other cases they are not personified, as on a vase which represents the moon and stars with the constellation Pegasos.^[956]

Hemera, the Day, we have already once noted; but in art she is hardly to be distinguished from Eos (Dawn). Nor can Nyx (Night) be identified with certainty on vases.^[957] Eos is not an uncommon figure, especially on R.F. vases, and she also plays a part in certain myths. As a single figure she appears rising from the sea in, or driving, a four-horse chariot like Helios,^[958] her steeds in one case being named Phlegethon and Lampon. She is also represented flying with two hydriae, from which she pours out dew upon the earth.^[959] She is frequently seen pursuing or carrying Kephalos^[960] or Tithonos,^[961] and is present at the apotheosis of Alkmena.^[962] At the combat of her son Memnon with Achilles she and the other mother, Thetis, are generally present.^[963] She also pleads with Zeus for her son’s safety,^[964] and bears away his body after the fatal issue of the fight.^[965]

Next we have to deal with the Winds, as personified by the figures of Boreas, Zephyros, etc. As single figures they seldom appear, though we have possible instances of Boreas, with the unusual type of a serpent’s tail,^[966] or simply as a winged male figure.^[967] A wind-god is seen in an episode from the Gigantomachia opposing the chariot of Zeus,^[968] and another in an assemblage of deities round Apollo Kitharoidos.^[969] Zephyros is seen pursuing Hyakinthos,^[970] and he and Boreas together bear the body of a warrior to the tomb in the same manner as Hypnos and Thanatos.^[971] But the most important subject connected with Boreas is his pursuit of the Athenian maiden Oreithyia, a frequent scene on the later R.F. vases,^[972] some being very fine examples. Erechtheus, Kekrops, and the Nymphs Aglauros, Herse, and Pandrosos, are usually present, and the latter in one case announce the news to Kekrops or Erechtheus.^[973] Boreas is also depicted in the act of punishing Phineus by blinding him, and attacked by the latter’s friend Parebios.^[974]

On some early B.F. vases we find winged beings which may be styled Boreades, in conjunction with Harpies, apparently representing the influences of good and evil winds respectively.^[975] Zetes and Kalais, the sons of Boreas, will be treated of in the story of the Argonautika.^[976] The Aurae or breezes have been identified on a well-known vase in the British Museum,^[977] and on an Apulian vase in the same collection is a head undoubtedly intended for Aura.^[978] The Hyades or rain-goddesses in two instances extinguish the flames of a funeral pyre at the bidding of Zeus, at the apotheosis of Alkmena^[979] and of Herakles^[980]; in one of the latter instances they are named Arethusa and Premnusia. They also receive the infant Dionysos.^[981] Echo belongs perhaps rather to the Dionysiac cycle, appearing as the beloved of Pan.^[982]

II. We may next consider the personifications of cities and countries, which are, indeed, in some cases more than merely symbolical figures, being actual goddesses with a definite cult, such as the Nymph Kyrene, who often appears on works of art.^[983] On the great Naples vase representing Dareios in a council of war, personifications of Hellas and Asia are placed among the spectator-deities,^[984] and the former seems also to be indicated on a similar vase with a battle of Greeks and Persians.^[985] On one of the late vases with the subject of Pelops and Oinomaos, a personification of the locality Olympia appears to be similarly present,^[986] just as on the Hieron kotyle the personification of Eleusis is included among the Eleusinian and other deities at the sending forth of Triptolemos.^[987] The city of Thebes is personified in several instances, especially as a spectator of Kadmos slaying the dragon^[988]; also on a “Megarian” bowl with reliefs in the British Museum, the subjects on which are taken from the Phoenissae of Euripides.^[989] Nemea, the scene of Herakles’ victory over the lion, and of the death of Archermos, is similarly personified as a Nymph in the representations of both subjects,^[990] and the town of Krommyon as a Nymph protests against the slaying of the sow by Theseus.^[991] The Nymph Sparta occurs once, dismounting from her horse.^[992] Two cups of the early B.F. class usually known (from their subjects) as Cyrenaic, bear representations of the Nymph Kyrene (see above)—in one case with Apollo, in the other holding a branch of silphium (the local product) and surrounded by Boreads and Harpies (see above).^[993]

Among the Greek islands, Aegina and Salamis were supposed to have derived their names from Nymphs beloved of Zeus and Poseidon, who are represented pursuing these quasi-personified figures^[994]; we may also regard Europa as coming under that category.^[995] Zeus also pursues Taygeta, who is connected with the mountain in Laconia.^[996] On one vase we find the names of the islands Delos, Euboea, and Lemnos,^[997] given, presumably in pure fancy, to two Maenads and a Satyr in a Dionysiac scene where all the figures are named. A more genuine instance is that of the Nymph Krete on the Talos vase, indicating the locality.^[998]

Turning to other geographical features, we have Mount Olympos transformed into a lyre-playing companion of Satyrs^[999]; or, again, river-gods such as Acheloös, who as a combination of man and bull, or with a fish-body like Triton, wrestles with Herakles.^[1000] The river Nile appears once, but not personified—only as an indication of landscape.^[1001] In connection with the city of Thebes we find personifications of the local river Ismenos and the local fountain-Nymphs Dirke and Krenaia.^[1002]

III. Natural products, such as Oinos (Wine) and Opora (Harvest), are only found personified among the Dionysiac conceptions with which we have already dealt (p. 65); to these two names we may add those of Hedyoinos (Sweet Wine), Kissos (Ivy), Kalyke (Bud), and Rodo (Rose), the three latter coming more under the heading of pet-names than of strict personifications.

IV. Our next class includes certain groups of personages (all feminine) which for the most part hold their own throughout all periods of art and literature, and are, so to speak, more crystallised into definite mythological personages, associated with the gods and human beings of the legendary ages. These are the Muses, the Charites or Graces, the Horae or Seasons, the Moirae or Fates, and the Erinnyes or Furies.

The Muses do not appear so frequently in vase-paintings as in sculpture, and mostly on later vases. Two fine R.F. examples of the whole nine (with their appropriate attributes) call for mention^[1003]; other vases give a more limited number, or even single figures^[1004]; but it must be remembered that in such cases identification is difficult, as characterisation by means of a lyre or scenic mask does not necessarily connote the presence of a Muse. On one vase Terpsichore is seen with two figures inscribed as Mousaios and Melousa^[1005]; but these may be no more than fancy names for an ordinary group of musicians. Five of them are seen in a group with Apollo, Thamyris, and Sappho,^[1006] and elsewhere they accompany Apollo.^[1007]

The Graces can nowhere be identified on Greek vases, though they form a well-known type in sculpture; but there is an Etruscan kylix in the British Museum (probably copied from a Greek original), which appears to represent them as an interior group.^[1008] The Horae or Seasons appear (without distinctive names) on the François vase at the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis, and on the Sosias cup^[1009] in an Olympian assemblage (three in each case); also two of them at the sending forth of Triptolemos.^[1010] The three Moirae (Fates) appear on the François vase (as above), and once also at the birth of Athena^[1011]; the Furies have already been discussed.^[1012]

V. The personifications having reference to physical conditions (as distinguished from ethical ideas) are comparatively few in number. They include Hebe (Youth), who by virtue of her divine attributes has already been discussed in another section (p. 77); Hygieia (Health), who is also a fully developed goddess, but only once occurs on a vase, except among the somewhat vague personifications surrounding Aphrodite (see pp. 43, 76]); and three others, regarded as of masculine sex. These are Geras (Old Age), Hypnos (Sleep), and Thanatos (Death). Geras is seen in combat with Herakles^[1013]; Thanatos has already been discussed (p. 71). Hypnos as a winged youth hovers over Alkyoneus, whom Herakles overcame while asleep^[1014]; causes Ariadne to sleep while Theseus escapes^[1015]; and with Thanatos carries the body of Memnon,^[1016] or an ordinary mortal,^[1017] to the tomb.

VI. Social advantages as apart from ethical qualities are perhaps difficult to determine exactly; but we may fairly rank under this heading such ideas as are suggested by Chrysos (Gold) and Ploutos (Wealth); Eirene (Peace); Nike (Victory); and the numerous attendants of Aphrodite and Dionysos, such as Eunomia, Eudaimonia, and others already named (pp. 43, 65). Chrysos and Ploutos as boys accompany Nike in her chariot^[1018]; Eirene’s appearance on vases is doubtful, but she may appear in one instance carrying the infant Ploutos.^[1019] The birth of Ploutos seems to be represented in one instance.^[1020]

But by far the most important personage in this class is Nike (Victory), whose appearance as a winged female figure is so often attested by inscriptions on R.F. vases that she can generally be identified with certainty. She is especially popular as a single figure on the Nolan amphorae and lekythi of the “severe” and “strong” periods, some of which are conspicuously beautiful examples.^[1021] Altogether her appearances rival those of Eros in number, though on the Italian vases they are far fewer. Whether Nike ever occurs on B.F. vases is a very doubtful point, and has been denied by many scholars, but some figures are not easy to explain in any other way.^[1022] On other works of art she does not appear before 480 B.C., unless the “Nike” of Archermos is to be so identified; it seems probable that she was an offshoot from Athena, whom we know to have been worshipped under the name of Nike, as in her temple on the Athenian Acropolis.

She is frequently associated with the gods, either in scenes from mythology or in groups apart from action^[1023]; usually she pours libations to them, or crowns them in reference to some achievement. Thus we find her with Zeus,^[1024] with Hera,^[1025] with Athena,^[1026] with Poseidon and Dionysos,^[1027] with Apollo (especially at his victory over Marsyas),^[1028] with Artemis Elaphebolos,^[1029] and with Aphrodite.^[1030] She frequently crowns or pours libations to Herakles, or attends him at his apotheosis^[1031]; on the later vases she takes Athena’s place in conveying him in a chariot to Olympos.^[1032]

Among the numerous mythological events in which Nike plays a more or less symbolical part may be mentioned the Gigantomachia, in which she drives Zeus’ chariot,^[1033] the birth of Athena,^[1034] the sending of Triptolemos,^[1035] the Judgment of Paris,^[1036] the birth of Dionysos^[1037] and that of Erichthonios,^[1038] and the punishment of Ixion.^[1039] Among Trojan scenes she appears with Achilles arming,^[1040] at his (supposed) fight with Telephos and possibly also at that with Memnon,^[1041] and at the carrying off of the Palladion.^[1042] She is also seen with Herakles in the Garden of the Hesperides,^[1043] with the Dioskuri,^[1044] with Perseus and Bellerophon,^[1045] with Orestes at Delphi^[1046]; crowning Hellas as the victor over the Persians^[1047]; and in many scenes with Dionysos.^[1048]

More numerous and characteristic, however, are the scenes in which she appears as a single figure, or associated with mortals, usually victorious warriors or athletes. As a single figure she most commonly pours a libation over an altar,^[1049] or flies towards the altar bearing a torch, incense-burner, lyre, tripod, sash, or other attribute^[1050]; in one case (unless Iris is intended) a jug and caduceus.^[1051] Especially characterised as the goddess of Victory, she often holds a palm-branch.^[1052] She frequently takes part in religious and sacrificial ceremonies, such as the decoration or dedication of a choragic tripod,^[1053] or burns incense,^[1054] or herself sacrifices a ram or bull.^[1055] The last-named subject is, however, commoner on gems and a certain class of terracotta reliefs.^[1056] On one vase she gives drink to a bull^[1057]; or, again, she rides on a sacrificial bull^[1058]; or places a hydria on a fountain or altar.^[1059] She pursues a hare, doe, or bird,^[1060] or offers a bird to a youth.^[1061] On the later Panathenaic amphorae and elsewhere she holds the ἀκροστόλιον or stern-ornament of a ship^[1062]; and sometimes she erects a trophy.^[1063]

She appears in a chariot drawn by female Centaurs,^[1064] or accompanied by Chrysos and Ploutos (see above),^[1065] and she also conducts a victorious warrior in this manner.^[1066] In other instances she pours a libation to a warrior,^[1067] who is sometimes inscribed with a fanciful name^[1068]; or, again, as anticipating his victory, she brings him his helmet.^[1069] She is, however, more frequently seen in athletic scenes, crowning a victorious athlete,^[1070] rider,^[1071] or charioteer,^[1072] or superintending the games in the palaestra,^[1073] torch-races,^[1074] or the taking of an oath by an athlete.^[1075] In musical contests she performs the same functions, crowning or pouring libations to a successful performer.^[1076] She crowns a successful potter in his workshop,^[1077] and also a poet (?).^[1078] A being of similar character, who may perhaps be recognised in the figure of a winged youth on some B.F. and early R.F. vases, is Agon, the personification of athletic contests.^[1079]

On the later R.F. vases the figure of Nike is often duplicated, probably more to produce a balanced composition than for any other reason.^[1080]

VII. The next class of personifications is that of abstract ethical ideas. Even on the earlier vases there are found a considerable number of these, such as Eris (Strife); but on the later, unlimited play is given to the tendency of the age (seen also in sculpture and painting) to invest every abstract idea with a personality, apart from any idea of deification or mythological import.

Among these, by far the most numerous examples are, of course, those relating to the passion of Love. We have already traced the development of the type and conception of Eros in vase-paintings, and in the same place we have had occasion to speak of the associated ideas which became personified as subsidiary conceptions to that of Love, such as Peitho (Persuasion), Pothos (Yearning), and Himeros (Charm), Phthonos (Envy or Amor invidiosus), and Talas (Unfortunate or Unrequited Love).^[1081] Of a similar type are the feminine conceptions associated with Aphrodite-Eudaimonia (Happiness), Euthymia (Cheerfulness), and the like.^[1082]

Among other abstract ideas are those of Arete (Virtue) and Hedone (Pleasure), which have been suggested as represented on one vase.^[1083] On a R.F. vase in Vienna, Dike (Justice) is seen overcoming Adikia (Injustice)^[1084]; Apate (Deceit) on the vase with Dareios in council beguiles the goddess Asia with bad advice,^[1085] and also leads Tereus astray^[1086]; Phobos (Fear) drives the chariot of Ares when he assists Kyknos against Herakles^[1087]; he is specially associated with the god of war, the idea being that of inducing panic among enemies; and in many cases his head appears, like that of the Gorgon, as a device on shields.^[1088] In one instance he appears as a lion-headed monster.^[1089] Artemis, in the capacity of Aidos (Shame), hinders Tityos from carrying off Leto.^[1090] Eris (Strife) appears on B.F. vases as a winged female figure running, in scenes of combat, chariot-races, etc., or as a single figure.^[1091] But the identification is not always certain; in some combat scenes it is possible that Ate or a Ker is meant, and in those of an agonistic character we may see Agon, the personification of athletics (see above, p. 89).^[1092]

VIII. The metaphysical ideas next to be discussed are almost exclusively punitive agencies, either connected with scenes in the under-world (Ananke, Poinae, and the Furies), or bringing down penalties and disasters on the heads of wrong-doers, such as the personifications of madness which occur in many of the tragic subjects on Apulian vases.

In the first group we reckon Ananke (Necessity) and the Poinae (Punishments), who appear with the Furies in a scene from the under-world,^[1093] Ate or Ker (Destiny), a winged figure seen at the death of Hector^[1094] and at the madness of Lykourgos^[1095]; and Nemesis (Vengeance) in the scene between Atreus and Thyestes,^[1096] with reference to its fate-fraught character. In less tragic circumstances the latter is present in a bridal scene, with attributes of a flower and an apple.^[1097] The Moirae or Fates have already been mentioned (p. 83), as has Themis or Divine Ordinance (p. 74).

The second group includes Lyssa (Frenzy), who drives Aktaeon, Hippolytos, and Lykourgos to madness or destruction^[1098]; Mania (Madness), who similarly drives Herakles to slay his children^[1099]; and Oistros (E.g. a Gad-fly), who performs similar functions when Medeia is about to slay hers.^[1100]

IX. Personifications relating to social enjoyments, such as games, the drama, or banquets, are closely analogous to many of those described under headings III. and VI., and occur in the same connection. Thus in Dionysiac scenes we find Choro (Dance), Molpe (Song), Dithyrambos, Hedymeles (Sweet Song), Komos (Revelry), Komodia and Tragoedia (Comedy and Tragedy), and Pannychis and Kraipale, typifying all-night revels and their consequences.^[1101]

X. Finally, there are what M. Pottier has described as personifications of individualities, under which heading fall many conceptions which do not find a place in any of the classes already discussed. Among these are many of the names given to Maenads and Satyrs (p. 65), which are intermediate between personal names and embodiments of abstract or physical ideas, some inclining more to one side, some to the other. Of these it is only necessary to mention as illustrative of the present subject the Mainas^[1102] and the Nymphe^[1103] found as names of individuals on several vases, and the Oinopion or “Wine-drinker” on vases by Exekias.^[1104]

To the same class belong the names given to Nymphs of various kinds, such as the Nereids (see p. 26) or the Hesperides. The latter are named on one vase^[1105] as Asterope, Chrysothemis, Hygieia, and Lipara; on another^[1106] as Aiopis, Antheia, Donakis, Kalypso, Mermesa, Nelisa, and Tara.

Of more general signification, and sometimes perhaps to be regarded as descriptive titles rather than names, are such as Archenautes (Ship-captain),^[1107] Komarchos (Master of Revels),^[1108] or Paidagogos (Tutor).^[1109] On the other hand, Neanias, Komos, Paian (given to boys at play),^[1110] and Eutychia (on the tomb of a woman)^[1111] may be merely fanciful personal names.