(3) Harmodios and Aristogeiton slaying the tyrant Hipparchos (B.C. 510).

B.F.: Arch.-epigr. Mitth. aus Oesterr. iii. (1879), pl. 6. R.F.; Reinach, i. 449; and see a late Panath. amph. in B.M. (B 605).

(4) Diitrephes shot to death with arrows, B.C. 479 (?). See Paus. i. 23, 3, and Frazer’s note.

Bibl. Nat. 299 = Jahrbuch, 1892, p. 185 (but see Reinach, ii. p. 255, and p. 15 under Gigantomachia).

(5) The Persian king and queen.

Helbig, p. 281 = Reinach, i. 275 (see Hartwig, Meistersch. p. 525).

(6) The Persian king hunting.

Petersburg, 1790 = Reinach, i. 23 (Xenophantos): cf. Naples 2992.

(7) Dareios in council, with various deities and personifications as spectators.

Naples 3253 = Reinach, i. 194 = Baumeister, i. pl. 6, fig. 449.

(8) Battle of Greeks and Persians (with spectator-deities, etc.).

Naples 3256 = Reinach, i. 98: see also p. 179; Reinach, ii. 84; Hartwig, Meistersch. pls. 55–56 and p. 518.

(9) Battle of Greeks and Messapians.

Berlin 3264 = Reinach, i. 270.

II. (1) Sappho.

(a) As single figure.

De Witte, Coll. à l’Hôtel Lambert, pl. 3.

(b) With Alkaios.

Fig. 133 = Munich 753 = Baumeister, iii. p. 1543, fig. 1607.

(c) Reading her poems.

Athens 1241 = Dumont-Pottier, pl. 6 = Reinach, i. 526.

(d) In rivalry with Muses.

Jatta 1538 = Reinach, i. 526.

(e) With Eros (named Talas).

Abhandl. d. k. sächs. Gesellsch. viii. (1861), pl. 1, fig. 1: see p. 49.

(2) Aesop.

Helbig, 154 = Jahn, Arch. Beitr. pl. 12, fig. 2.

(3) Anakreon.

B.M. E 18: cf. E 266–67, 314–15; and see generally Jahn, Gr. Dichter auf Vasenb. in Abhandl. d. k. sächs. Gesellsch. viii. (1861), p. 699 ff.

(4) Kydias of Hermione (a lyric poet: cf. Schol. in Ar. Nub. 967) and Nikarchos (a contemporary flute-player) are to be seen, according to Jahn (op. cit. p. 740) on a psykter in the British Museum (E 767), on which these names are inscribed over two revellers; but the identification is exceedingly doubtful. See also Munich 1096 = Jahn, op. cit. pl. 4, fig. 1.

III. Mention should also here be made of the names of historical renown which often appear on R.F. vases with the word καλός (see Vol. I. p. 403, and below, p. 267), such as Alkibiades, Glaukon, Hipparchos, Kleinias, Leagros, Megakles, and Miltiades. The question is dealt with elsewhere, and it has been shown that only in one or two cases—e.g. Leagros, Glaukon, and Kleinias (the father of Alkibiades)—can an identification with the historical personages be certainly maintained; it is, however, of sufficient interest for reference in this chapter, because the inscribed names may in some cases possibly refer to the figures depicted on the vases.^[1533]

Religious subjects—Sacrifices—Funeral scenes—The Drama and burlesques—Athletics—Sport and games—Musical scenes—Trades and occupations—Daily life of women—Wedding scenes—Military and naval subjects—Orientals and Barbarians—Banquets and revels—Miscellaneous subjects—Animals.

It is hardly possible to give within brief limits all the illustrations that the vases afford, either directly or indirectly, of the religious and secular life of the Greeks. It is, however, feasible to classify these subjects under several headings, and to give a list of the most typical and popular in each case. Thus we have:

1. Religious Subjects

These mostly appear in the form of sacrifices, either before a simple altar, or before the statue of some deity, a cult-image, or terminal figure. Thus we have representations of the offering of a bull to Athena,^[1534] sacrifices to a primitive image of Dionysos^[1535] or to a terminal figure of Hermes,^[1536] or a sacrifice or libation to Persephone, Apollo, or other deities.^[1537] A procession of six maidens carrying chairs and a boy with game is probably in honour of Artemis^[1538]; and in another scene we have the Dioskuri coming to the Theoxenia or feast prepared in their honour.^[1539] Many other examples may be found under the heading of the various Olympian deities. In other instances we see the preparations for a sacrifice,^[1540] or a procession of figures with victims and sacrificial implements^[1541]; the victims are either rams,^[1542] bulls,^[1543] goats,^[1544] or pigs.^[1545] Other scenes of sacrifice represent the roasting of a piece of meat held on a spit over a blazing altar^[1546]; or two men stand over a large krater on a stand, accompanied by a flute-player.^[1547] In many cases the sacrifice is doubtless intended to celebrate a dramatic, agonistic, or other victory.^[1548]

Among other religious scenes we have the dedication of a tripod,^[1549] religious festival dances,^[1550] praying figures,^[1551] men or women burning incense over an altar or incense-burner^[1552]; or scenes of libation,^[1553] a Metragyrtes or mendicant priest praying before devotees,^[1554] and a priest examining the entrails of a ram.^[1555] An ephebos is initiated and purified by the Διὸς κῴδιον^[1556]; oaths are taken over a tomb,^[1557] or omens from birds on a tumulus^[1558]; and here perhaps may be mentioned a man making a gesture against the evil eye.^[1559] There is also a scene illustrative of the Πιθοίγια, an Athenian feast^[1560]; and a possible representation of the feast of Adonis, and the “gardens” or pots of flowers exhibited on that occasion.^[1561] Lastly, there are scenes relating to votive offerings, such as a figure of a child on a column offered to Athena,^[1562] a youth carrying a votive tablet,^[1563] and others in which similar votive tablets occur.^[1564] The number of scenes which can be shown to relate to Athenian festivals, or bear on Greek religious belief and ritual, might be greatly expanded and multiplied, but at present little has been done in this direction.^[1565]

2. Funeral Scenes

Closely connected with these religious subjects are those which played so large a part in the life of the Greeks, and found such a strong reflection in their decorative art—namely, those which relate to the burial and cult of the dead. The relation of Greek vases to the tomb has been discussed elsewhere (Vol. I. p. 141 ff.), and it is sufficient here to repeat that there are only three or four classes of vases which yield undoubted evidence that they were expressly made for funeral purposes, each belonging to a different period of the art.

In the earliest period we have the great Dipylon vases (Vol. I. p. 285), many of which represent funeral processions and rows of mourning women^[1566]; these were made for standing outside the tomb. In the B.F. period there are the prothesis-amphorae, made likewise for placing first round the bier and then on the tomb, as plainly shown in one instance^[1567]; and in the R.F. period the Athenian white lekythi are decorated almost exclusively with sepulchral scenes. Among the vases of the decadence a whole series of Lucanian and Campanian hydriae and Apulian kraters and amphorae, as well as some late Athenian vases, the Apulian examples being usually of enormous size, equally betray the special purpose for which they were made.

On the B.F. vases the commonest subject is the prothesis or conclamatio, where the body is exposed on the bier and the mourners stand round in attitudes of grief,^[1568] a subject also occasionally found on the lekythi.^[1569] Elsewhere we have the carrying of the bier to the tomb,^[1570] accompanied by warriors, and the depositio or placing of the body therein.^[1571] On the vases of this period the tomb invariably assumes the form of a mound (χῶμα or tumulus),^[1572] as it appears in some mythical scenes already described.^[1573] On the lekythi, on the other hand, the tomb is in the form of a tall plain stele, on a stepped base, crowned with an ornament of acanthus-leaves or a palmette, and wreathed with coloured sashes, while vases and baskets of flowers are sometimes placed on the steps.^[1574] On the vases of Southern Italy it is developed either into a tall column with altar-like base,^[1575] or into a large shrine or heroön, with columns in front and gabled roof, within which stands the figure of the deceased,^[1576] or sometimes an acanthus-plant^[1577] or several vases.^[1578]

The subjects on the white lekythi and later vases almost invariably take the form of mourners,^[1579] or men and women making offerings to the dead, or placing sashes, wreaths, and vases on the tomb.^[1580] Or, again, we may note interesting parallels with the Athenian sepulchral reliefs of the fourth century, which are mostly contemporaneous with the vases.^[1581] Thus we have “farewell scenes” between a man and woman,^[1582] or between two women^[1583]; or the equestrian figure of a warrior, as on the famous stele of Dexileos,^[1584] or a warrior charging with his spear^[1585]; or, again, a hare-hunt at a tomb, perhaps with reference to the occupations of the deceased.^[1586] Sometimes the tomb of a warrior is indicated by his armour.^[1587] The interior of a tomb is occasionally shown, with a dead boy in it,^[1588] or a series of vases,^[1589] or as in the story of Polyeidos.^[1590] In one instance a group of figures is placed on the top of the tomb.^[1591] Mythological figures are sometimes introduced, as Charon ferrying the dead in his bark,^[1592] or Hermes Psychopompos^[1593]; or the type of Thanatos and Hypnos (or that of Boreas and Zephyros) with Memnon is borrowed for that of a warrior, a youth, or a woman whom they place in the tomb.^[1594] Occasionally we see the soul of the deceased as a small flitting winged figure.^[1595] On the Italian vases the figure of the deceased usually appears inside the heroön, painted white, as if to indicate a sculptured marble figure: a warrior with armour,^[1596] or a youth with his horse or dog,^[1597] or pouring a libation from a kantharos.^[1598] These heroa are always surrounded by figures of women bearing baskets of offerings, unguent-vases, and wreaths, and by youths as mourners.^[1599]

Apart from the under-world scenes already described,^[1600] the future life is not illustrated by the vases, except in a curious scene on a B.F. Cyrenaic cup, representing a banquet of the blessed, attended by Sirens.^[1601] There is also one single representation of the subject so common on later Greek reliefs—the sepulchral banquet.^[1602]

3. The Drama

The relation of vase-paintings to the drama has already been discussed in Chapter XI., in which it has been shown how the tragedies of Euripides and the farces of Rhinthon influenced the artists of Southern Italy. It may, however, be worth while to recapitulate here the actual representations of actors or of scenes taking place on a stage, together with some account of the numerous burlesques of mythical subjects.

On one curious B.F. vase (probably late and imitative) we see a rude representation of a tragic and a comic chorus,^[1603] and occasionally on vases of this period we find figures of actors dressed up as birds, or otherwise in comic fashion.^[1604] More important in this connection are the fifth-century vases found on the site of the Cabeiric temple at Thebes, several of which have parodies of well-known subjects, such as Odysseus and Kirke, or Peleus bringing the young Achilles to Cheiron.^[1605] It seems probable that these scenes are actual reproductions of burlesque performances connected with the worship of the Kabeiri.

We look in vain for representations of scenes from Aristophanes and the Old Comedy, though there are one or two vases which recall (if nothing more) episodes in the Acharnians^[1606] and Frogs.^[1607] But for the rest, these comic scenes are almost confined to the vases of Southern Italy, especially those made at Paestum, with their presentations of the φλύακες or fourth-century farces. A fairly exhaustive list of these was made some years ago by Heydemann,^[1608] and probably requires little emendation as yet; we repeat below a number of the more interesting subjects, and others may be collected from the foregoing pages in which myths are burlesqued (the Judgment of Paris, the apotheosis of Herakles, Oedipus and the Sphinx, etc.).^[1609]

(1) Zeus visiting Alkmena: Schreiber-Anderson, 5, 8 = Heydemann, loc. cit. p. 276: cf. B.M. F 150.

(2) Apollo healing the Centaur Cheiron: B.M. F 151.

(3) Herakles at Delphi; Apollo takes refuge on the roof of the temple: Reinach, i. 153, 2 = Rayet and Collignon, p. 318.

(4) Combat of Hephaistos (Daidalos) and Ares (Enyalios): B.M. F 269.

(5) Herakles with the Kerkopes: Schreiber-Anderson, 5, 2 = Heydemann p. 281.

(6) Herakles seizing Auge: Fig. 105, Vol. I. p. 474 = Reinach, i. 123 = Heydemann, p. 279.

(7) Burlesque of the story of Antigone: Reinach, i. 273.

(8) Rape of the Palladion: B.M. F 366.

(9) Death of Priam: Berlin 3045 = Reinach, i. 370, 8.

(10) Odysseus and Kirke: Jatta 901 = Heydemann, p. 271.

(11) Odysseus in Phaeacia: Reinach, i. 153, 1.

Other scenes represent single figures, such as Herakles,^[1610] or Taras on the dolphin^[1611]; or subjects from farces of daily life, such as an actor with a table of cakes^[1612] or the drunken return from a revel.^[1613] Many scenes, again, have some reference to the Satyric drama, as on the fine vase in Naples, where Dionysos and other figures attend the preparations for a performance of that kind^[1614]; or such scenes as that of Hera and Iris attacked by Seileni,^[1615] or those relating to adventures of Herakles and Perseus with Satyrs.^[1616] Other subjects have no particular significance, such as an actor attired as a Seilenos playing on the flute, or dancing, or with a Sphinx,^[1617] groups of actors^[1618] (in one case dressing^[1619]), a comic actor among Satyrs and Maenads,^[1620] and single figures.^[1621] Some, which are apparently mythological, defy explanation.^[1622]

The influence of Tragedy on vase-paintings is an indirect one, and entirely confined to the vases of Southern Italy on the one hand, and to the plays of Euripides on the other. The subject has been discussed at length elsewhere in this work,^[1623] and it is unnecessary here to give a list of the subjects on South Italian vases which can be traced to the influence of Euripides. It has also been pointed out that this influence made itself felt, not only in the actual choice of subjects, but generally in their treatment and arrangement, in the quasi-architectural setting of many scenes, and in the elaborate costumes of the figures.

4. Athletics and Sport

From the theatre we naturally turn to the palaestra and gymnasium, which played so important a part in the public and private life of the Greeks, and, like the former, may be said to be vested with a religious significance, as exemplified in the Olympic and other great games. Hardly any class of subject is found so frequently and consistently on the vases. The series of Panathenaic amphorae alone supply instances of every form of athletic exercise in which the Greeks indulged.^[1624] Many vases, especially the R.F. kylikes, represent groups of athletes in the palaestra engaged in various exercises, such as boxing, wrestling, running, and leaping^[1625]; in other cases we have single groups of boxers^[1626] or wrestlers,^[1627] or of the παγκράτιον, a somewhat brutal combination of the two.^[1628] A boxer is sometimes seen putting on his caestus.^[1629] The πένταθλον, which played so important a part in the national games, is not infrequently found, though often only three or four out of the five contests appear.^[1630] Here, again, we also find single figures of diskos-throwers^[1631] or javelin-throwers,^[1632] representations of the long-jump,^[1633] and men marking the ground with a pick-axe or poles.^[1634] An athlete is seen binding round his javelin the cord or ἀγκύλη by which it was thrown,^[1635] and the pick-axe afore-mentioned also appears in such a way as to indicate its general use by athletes—viz. for digging up the ground over which jumps were made, by way of exercising the limbs.^[1636] A variation of the javelin contest was one in which the competitors were mounted, and aimed at a shield set up as a target as they rode past.^[1637] Other important contests are the foot-race^[1638]; the horse-race, generally taken part in by boys (κέλητες)^[1639]; the chariot-race^[1640]; the torch-race (λαμπαδηδρομία)^[1641]; and the race of armed warriors (ὁπλιτοδρομία).^[1642] In the latter contest various types may be distinguished: the arming for the race^[1643]; the start^[1644]; the race itself, with runners turning at the end of the stadion^[1645]; the finish^[1646]; and a variation in which the runner carried his armour.^[1647] On the earlier vases this race is run in full armour; on the later, only with helmets and shields. Frequently the victorious athlete, horseman, or hoplite is seen proclaimed as winner,^[1648] and receiving his prize^[1649]; also receiving a crown from Nike.^[1650]

Among more miscellaneous scenes may be mentioned athletes anointing themselves^[1651] and using the strigil^[1652]; the κωρυκομαχία or quintain^[1653]; an athlete expiring^[1654]; a girl-runner wounded in the foot^[1655]; men rolling discs^[1656]; acrobats^[1657] and female tumblers performing contortions over swords, or lifting objects with their feet.^[1658] To the list of palaestra scenes may be added those where Nike or another deity appears as patron of the palaestra watching the athletes,^[1659] and scenes of ephebi washing or bathing in preparation for or after their contests.^[1660] The athletes are often accompanied by trainers, who use a forked stick to direct their movements.^[1661] On the later R.F. and the Italian vases it is a regular thing to find on the reverse a roughly painted group of two or three athletes or ephebi, usually wrapped in himatia and conversing together^[1662]; in such cases the palaestra is indicated by a pair of jumping-weights or a ball suspended.

Subjects coming under the heading of what we call Sport are not so common, and are practically limited to hunting scenes. They include hare-hunts,^[1663] stag-hunts,^[1664] wolf-hunts and fox-hunts,^[1665] lion-hunts,^[1666] and boar-hunts^[1667]; in the latter on early B.F. vases the figures often have fancy names, with a reference in some cases to the hunt of the Calydonian boar, which created the type. Some, especially B.F. vases, depict the departure of a hunter for the chase,^[1668] or his return loaded with game^[1669]; or we see a party of hunters resting (all with fancy names).^[1670] A group of youths capturing and taming a bull may also be mentioned here,^[1671] and horse-taming is similarly depicted.^[1672] We see horses being unharnessed, groomed, and watered,^[1673] or exercised,^[1674] and a man with a backing horse^[1675]; and we may also perhaps include among these subjects scenes representing riding-lessons, a school for ephebi,^[1676] or a boy learning to mount a horse.^[1677] A favourite subject for the interiors of R.F. cups is that of a young Athenian on horseback,^[1678] often in Oriental or Thracian costume (see p. 179).^[1679] On the B.F. vases a horseman or a chariot is sometimes depicted in front view, a notable exception to the preference of the time,^[1680] and sometimes a three-horse chariot takes the place of the quadriga.^[1681] Among miscellaneous chariot-scenes may be mentioned a goddess (?) and a hero mounting chariots,^[1682] a girl in a chariot drawn by hinds^[1683]; and people travelling in a country cart.^[1684]

Among the various Games popular with Greek youths the favourite is, perhaps, that of ball, which was often played by men mounted on each other’s shoulders in two parties, this being known as ἐφεδρισμός^[1685]; a rougher variant, in which the ball was omitted and victory was probably gained by overthrowing the opponent pair, was known as ἐγκοτύλη.^[1686] Women and children also play at ball, as does Eros.^[1687] Equally popular was cock-fighting^[1688]; and we also see a group of boys shooting with bow and arrows at a popinjay or figure of a bird.^[1689] Of indoor amusements the favourite is the κότταβος, a popular relaxation after a banquet, often seen on kylikes and other R.F. vases.^[1690] Other games, more suitable to younger boys, are top-spinning^[1691] and bowling a hoop^[1692]; others, again, in which boys and girls join, or even occasionally Eros and Satyrs, are the games of morra (micare digitis, or “How many fingers do I hold up?”),^[1693] and its variant, the ὤμιλλα, played with knucklebones^[1694]; swinging^[1695] and see-sawing^[1696]; and flying a kite.^[1697] A game of similar character to the morra is played by a winged girl, who places her hands over the eyes of a boy in a chair.^[1698] The so-called magic wheel, which was twirled on a string, is almost exclusively used by Eros on the vases of Southern Italy.^[1699] Children with their toys, such as go-carts, vases of various shapes, etc., are often depicted on the smaller R.F. vases of the fine style, some of which were perhaps actually made for playthings^[1700]; and we often see them accompanied by pet dogs, tortoises, and other animals.^[1701] Similarly there are representations of birds and beasts kept in cages,^[1702] and of grown-up people playing with pets: a youth and girl with a mouse or jerboa,^[1703] or a man with a Maltese dog.^[1704]

Equal in importance in the eyes of the Greeks was the other great division of their education, μουσική; the wider sense in which they used the word, the culture of the mind as opposed to that of the body (γυμναστικη), admits of including under this heading school scenes as well as musical performances. Among the former is the well-known kylix of Duris in Berlin (Plate XXXIX.),^[1705] where a teacher is seen unrolling a manuscript on which appears an epic hexameter (see Chapter XVII.); a pupil is about to write on tablets; and others undergo instruction on the flute and lyre. Elsewhere we see a youth writing on a tablet,^[1706] or on his way to school^[1707]; a man reading from a roll^[1708]; and a vivid representation of a schoolmaster giving a writing lesson.^[1709]

Lessons in music,^[1710] singing,^[1711] and dancing^[1712] are by no means infrequently represented, especially on R.F. vases; we have already seen the young Herakles and Iphikles receiving instruction of this kind,^[1713] and on the vases both boys and girls take part in the lessons. Dancing scenes include dances of maidens (very common on early B.F. vases), or single figures of dancers^[1714]; a girl dancing to the flute or with castanets,^[1715] or a youth to the music of a girl^[1716]; a woman dancing the Pyrrhic dance in the attire of a warrior,^[1717] and a sacred Lydian dancer with her wicker head-dress.^[1718] The grotesque dancers on some early B.F. vases appear to be performing the kordax.^[1719]

Groups of musicians with no particular signification are often found, generally playing the lyre and flute,^[1720] or single figures, such as a lyre-player in female costume,^[1721] or in the distinctive ὀρθοστάδιον of the musician.^[1722] Other scenes relate to agonistic and musical competitions, which often formed part of the great games; thus we have on some Panathenaic vases and elsewhere contests for victory with the lyre^[1723] or flute.^[1724] Sometimes the victorious musician appears receiving the prize^[1725] or a crown from Nike^[1726]; he usually stands on a bema or raised platform. On one vase a poet recites an epic to the sound of the flute; the opening words appear proceeding from his mouth.^[1727] On another a man is seen tuning his lyre.^[1728] Singing was a common recreation of banqueters or revellers, especially as seen on R.F. vases.^[1729]