History of Sanitation

By J. J. COSGROVE

Author of

"Principles and Practice of Plumbing," "Sewage Purification
and Disposal," "Wrought Pipe Drainage Systems,"
and "Plumbing Plans and Specifications"

Published by

Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co.

PITTSBURGH, U. S. A.

Preface

When the manuscript for this volume was prepared, there was no decided intention of publishing it in book form. Originally it was intended to appear as a serial in "Modern Sanitation," and grew out of a request from the Editor of that magazine to write an article that would trace the advancement made in sanitation from its earliest stages to the present time.

Sanitation has been given but little thought by historians, consequently, considerable study and research were necessary to dig from musty tomes and ancient records a story that would prove interesting and instructive. Having succeeded in gathering together much of interest to sanitarians, and in view of the fact that no other history of sanitation was ever written, the work was deemed worthy of a more permanent place in literature, and it was decided to put it forth in more enduring form. The book is therefore offered to the public with the fervent hope that those who read its pages will derive as much pleasure as did the author in preparing the manuscript.

J. J. Cosgrove

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

February 15th, 1909

Publisher's Note

The primary object of our organization is, as is universally known, to manufacture and market "Standard" Plumbing Fixtures, Brass Goods and other products made in our factories. In the development of an organization to accomplish this result, there has been established an Advertising and Publishing Department of no small proportions, and the "History of Sanitation" is simply the outgrowth of the work of this department. This brief statement will, we believe, serve to give the public a clear understanding of our somewhat unique position of being at the same time manufacturers and publishers.

The first serious work of the Publishing Department on a large scale was "Modern Sanitation" (established June, 1904). From this came the publication, first in serial form and later as a book, of J. J. Cosgrove's first work, "Principles and Practice of Plumbing" (book published December, 1906). The phenomenal success of the book is a matter of general knowledge, although it may not be widely known that "Principles and Practice of Plumbing" has been adopted as a text book in more than thirty universities and colleges in the United States, and bids fair to be adopted in others. This magnificent achievement has been accomplished solely on the merit of the work and without solicitation on the part of either the author or publisher.

There is now offered almost simultaneously two new books by Mr. Cosgrove, one being the volume in hand and the other "Sewage Purification and Disposal."

In "History of Sanitation," "Sewage Purification and Disposal" and "Principles and Practice of Plumbing" we feel that the literature of the craft has been enriched in an enduring manner, and that we have fully justified our appearance in the field of publishers as amply as we have our standing as manufacturers of a world-wide known and used product.

Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co.

Pittsburgh, U. S. A.

Publishing Department

Explanatory Description of Full Page Illustrations

Ancient Roman Fountain at Corinth		Page 6
	An old fountain at Corinth, Greece, whose piping and stone construction date from about the time of the Christian era. It was standing here when St. Paul lived and taught in Corinth, and is still the only source of water supply for a large contingent of Greek housekeepers. Drinking water is carried home in jars, but washing is done on the spot, just as it was centuries ago.
The Roman Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain		Page 36
	This aqueduct is 937 feet long, and consists of 320 arches in two tiers, the highest arch in the lower tier being 102 feet. It is supposed to have been built in the time of Trajan. Segovia was an ancient Roman city located in old Castile, Spain, and was the residence of the kings of Leon and Castile.
The Oldest Bathroom in the World		Page 76
	This photograph was made at the ruined palace and fortress of Tiryns, in Greece. It is regarded by archæologists as one of the oldest cities in the world, and is mentioned by name in Greek poetry of 2,000 years ago. Its rulers must have been men of great importance, as their stone palace (parts of its walls and galleries are as firm and solid as ever) was a structure of splendid dimensions and substantial character. There is no doubt the 8 × 9-foot slab of stone seen in the picture formed the floor of a bathroom. At the farther edge there still remains the slanting groove cut in as an outlet for water.
Bathing and Burning Hindu Dead at Benares		Page 90
	Dipping a corpse in the holy waters of the Ganges River before burning it on the bank—a daily occurrence at Benares, India. Some worshipper may very likely drink the water only twenty feet away.
The Fountain of Elisha		Page 108
	The waters of this ancient fountain were miraculously sweetened by the Prophet Elisha.

	Page
Chapter I
Sanitation of Primitive Man—Early Wells—Rebekah at the Well—Joseph's Well—Well at the Rancho Chack	1
Chapter II
Cisterns—Early Mention of Cisterns—Cisterns of Carthage—Early Methods of Raising Water—Water Carriers—Pool of Siloam—Pool of Solomon—Aqueducts—Carthagenian Aqueduct—Aqueducts of Rome—Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain—Trophies of Marius	7
Chapter III
Early Sewage Disposal—Removal of Offensive Materials from Temples of Jerusalem—Sewage Systems of a Pre-Babylonian City—Sewers of Rome—The Cloaca Maxima—The Dejecti-Effusive Act	29
Chapter IV
Origin of Bathing—Early Greek Baths—Roman Private Baths—Public Baths of Rome—Ruins of Baths of Caracalla—Description of the Thermæ—The Thermæ of Titus at Rome—Baths of Pompeii—Heating Water for Roman Baths—Thermæ of Titus Restored	37
Chapter V
Fall of the Roman Empire—Succeeding Period Known as the Dark Ages—Sanitation During the Dark Ages—Beginning of Material Progress in Sanitation—Pilgrimage to Juggernaut—Water Supply in Paris—London Water Supply—Aqueduct of Zempoala, Mexico	63
Chapter VI
Introduction of Pumping Machinery into Waterworks Practice—The Archimedes Screw—Use of Pumps in Hanover, Germany—First London Pump on London Bridge—Savery and Newcomen's Pumping Engine—The Hydraulic Ram—Pumping Engines Erected for the Philadelphia Waterworks—Pipes for Distributing Water—Hydrants and Valves for Wooden Pipes—Data Regarding the Use of Wooden Pipes—Modern Pumping Engines	77
Chapter VII
Early British Sewers—Sewer in the Great Hall of Westminster—Shape of Early English Sewers—Adoption or Recommendation of Pipe Sewers—Early Paris Sewers—Paris Sewers of To-day—Lack of Sewage Data in America—Effect of Memphis Epidemics on Sanitary Progress	85
Chapter VIII
Sanitary Awakening—Realization of the Danger of Unwholesome Water—Cholera in London Traced to the Broad Street Pump—An Historical Stink	91
Chapter IX
Introduction of Water Filters—Striking Example of the Efficiency and Value—Cholera at Altona and Hamburg—Purification of Sewage—The Automatic Scavenger of Mouras—Investigations of the Massachusetts State Board of Health—Garbage Destruction	109
Chapter X
Modern and Recent Plumbing Fixtures—Passing of the Marble Lavatory—Public Wash Houses—Public Comfort Stations—Conclusion	119

List of Illustrations

		Page
1	Rebekah at the Well	2
2	Well at the Rancho Chack	4
3	Ancient Roman Fountain at Corinth	6
4	The Cisterns at Carthage	7
5	Pole and Bucket for Raising Water	8
6	Ruins of Ancient Cisterns	8
7	Old Roman Water-Wheel	9
8	Water Carrier with Jar	9
9	Water Carrier with Goat-Skin Bag	11
10	Pool of Siloam	12
11	Pool of Solomon	13
12	Aqueduct near Tunis, Leading to Ancient Carthage	14
13	Ancient Roman Well	15
14	Ruins of a Roman Aqueduct	17
15	Distant View of the Claudia Aqueduct	18
16	Near View of the Claudia Aqueduct	19
17	Aqueduct in Ruins, Ephesus	20
18	Roman Aqueduct, Segovia, Spain	22
19	Water Tower and Roman Ruins, Chester, England	23
20	Roman Water Pipes, made of Bored-out Blocks of Stone	24
21	Trophies of Marius	25
22	Old Roman Lead and Terra Cotta Pipe	26
23	The Women's Baths, Pompeii	28
24	The Cloaca Maxima. From an old woodcut	31
25	The Cloaca Maxima. From a recent photograph	32
26	Egyptian Lady Having Head Sprayed, 1700 B. C.	33
27	Greek Women Bathing	34
28	Greek Bath Tubs	34
29	The Roman Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain	36
30	Mosaic from Floor of Baths of Caracalla	37
31	Ruins of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome	38
32	Interior of the Frigidarium, Caracalla	39
33	Outer Row of Baths, Caracalla, Rome	41
34	Thermæ of Titus at Rome	46
35	Clipeus. From an old woodcut	46
36	Floor Plan of the Baths of Pompeii	47
37	Frigidarium. From an old woodcut	48
38	Atlantes	50
39	Coppers for Heating Water in Roman Baths	52
40	Ground Plan of Thermæ of Caracalla	55
41	Hypocaust for Heating Water, Thermæ of Caracalla	57
42	Restoration of Thermæ of Titus. (Restored by Leclerc)	58
43	Plan of the Thermæ of Titus, Rome. (Restored by Leclerc)	59
44	Sectional Elevation, Thermæ of Titus, Rome	60
45	Frigidarium, Thermæ of Caracalla, Rome. (Restored by Viollet-le-Duc.)	61
46	Interior View of Aqueduct, Lisbon, Portugal	62
47	Destroyed Lead Font, Great Plumstead, Norfolk	64
48	Leaden Cup, of the time of Vespasian	65
49	Lead Pipehead and Pipe	66
50	Lead Cistern with the Arms of the Fishmongers' Company	67
51	Car of Juggernaut	68
52	Distant View of Zempoala Aqueduct, Queretaro, Mexico	70
53	Near View of Zempoala Aqueduct, Mexico	71
54	Zempoala Aqueduct. From an old print	72
55	The Oldest Bathroom in the World	76
56	Savery's Engine	77
57	Newcomen's Engine	78
58	Pump House, Philadelphia	79
59	Wooden Boilers used in Philadelphia Water Supply	80
60	Bored-out Log Pipe, used in British Columbia	81
61	Valve for Wooden Pipes used in Philadelphia Water Supply	82
62	Hydrant for Wooden Pipes used in Philadelphia Water Supply	82
63	Modern Vertical Triple-Expansion Pumping Engine	83
64	Aqueduct Crossing the Alcantara Valley	84
65	Bathing and Burning Hindu Dead at Benares	90
66	Map Showing Relation of Cholera and the Broad Street Pump	92
67	York Survey of the Broad Street Pump	101
68	The Fountain of Elisha	108
69	Map Showing Location of Cases of Cholera in Hamburg and Altona	110
70	New York Public Baths	118
71	Bathroom of the Early Seventies	119
72	One Stage in the Evolution of the Porcelain Enameled Bath	120
73	A Slop Sink of Long Ago	120
74	Bath Tub Encased in Woodwork	121
75	An Old Marble-Top Lavatory	121
76	A Modern Porcelain Enameled Lavatory	122
77	Present Stage in the Evolution of Porcelain Enameled Baths	123
78	A Twentieth Century Bathroom	124

LAOCOÖN AND HIS SONS

STATVARY FOVND IN THE BATHS OF TITVS

This group of statuary is now in the Vatican, Rome

CHAPTER I.

History of Sanitation: Chapter I

Synopsis of Chapter. Sanitation of Primitive Man—Early Wells—Rebekah at the Well—Joseph's Well—The Rancho Chack.

History repeats itself. The march of progress is onward, ever onward, but it moves in cycles. A center of civilization springs up, flourishes for a time then decays; and from the ashes of the perished civilization, phœnix-like, there springs a larger, grander, more enduring civilization. Nowhere in the cycle of progress is this more noticeable than in the history of sanitation. Centers of civilization, like Jerusalem, Athens, Rome and Carthage, arose to pre-eminence in sanitary matters, built sewers, constructed aqueducts and provided for the inhabitants magnificent baths the equal of which the world has never since seen. After the splendors of Carthage and Rome, darkness succeeded; a darkness from which we slowly emerged in the sixteenth century and are now speeding on to eclipse the sanitary splendors of even the old Roman empire.

In its broadest sense, a history of sanitation is a story of the world's struggle for an adequate supply of wholesome water, and its efforts to dispose of the resultant sewage without menace to health nor offence to the sense of sight or smell. In ancient as in modern times, water was the chief consideration of a community. Centers of population sprung up in localities where water was plentiful, and where for commercial, strategetic or other reasons, a city was built remote from a water course, great expenditures of labor and treasure were made constructing works to conduct water to the city from distant springs, lakes or water courses. Ruins—still standing—of some of those engineering works give us some idea of the magnitude of the water supply for ancient cities belonging to the Roman empire.

Rebekah at the Well

In the early days of primitive man, sanitation was among his least concerns. He obtained water from the most convenient source, and disposed of his sewage in the least laborious way. Those who lived in the vicinity of streams solved the problem by moving to the bank, where, like their more highly civilized descendants of to-day, they drew water from the up side of the stream and returned the sewage to the water to pollute and possibly contaminate it for their neighbors lower down.

Communities living remote from natural water courses soon learned the value of wells as a source of water supply. Many mentions of wells are made in the Book of Genesis, and it is affirmed by Blackstone that at that period wells were the cause of violent and frequent contention; that the exclusive property or title to a well appeared to be vested in the first digger or occupant, even in such places where the ground and herbage remained in common.

While this statement might be true of many instances, there can be no doubt that public wells were dug even in those remote times. Indeed, the first mention made of a well, in the Book of Genesis, would indicate that its waters were free to all. Abraham's oldest servant, Eliezer, had been entrusted with the duty of selecting a wife for Abraham's son, Isaac. The servant journeyed to the ancient city of Nahor, and there "he made his camels to kneel down without the city by a well of water at the time of the evening that women go out to draw water." And he said: "Behold, I stand here by the well of water; and the daughters of the men of the city come out to draw water, and let it come to pass that the damsel to whom I shall say, Let down thy pitcher, I pray thee, that I may drink; and she shall say, Drink, and I will give thy camel drink also; Let the same be she that Thou hast appointed for thy servant, Isaac. And it came to pass that Rebekah came out, and the damsel was very fair to look upon, and she went down to the well and filled her pitcher, and the servant said, Let me I pray thee drink a little water of thy pitcher. And she said, Drink, my lord, and when she had done giving him drink, she said, I will draw water for thy camel also. And she hastened to empty her pitcher in the trough and ran again unto the well to draw water for all the camels."

In Assyria and Persia from earliest times, water has been conveyed to towns from astonishing distances in open channels, and in Egypt, also in China, gigantic works for conveying water both for domestic use and for irrigation have been in existence from remote antiquity. In China, a knowledge of the art of well drilling has existed for centuries. Travelers speak of wells drilled by Chinese, centuries ago, to a depth of 1,500 feet.

In the valley of the Nile are many famous wells. Joseph's Well [1] at Cairo, near the Pyramids, is perhaps the most famous of ancient wells. It is excavated in solid rock to a depth of 297 feet and consists of two stories or lifts. The upper shaft is 18 by 24 feet and 165 feet deep; the lower shaft is 9 by 15 feet and reaches to a further depth of 132 feet. Water is raised in two lifts by means of buckets on endless chains, those for the lower level being operated by mules in a chamber at the bottom of the upper shaft, to which access is had by means of a spiral stairway winding about the well.

Well at the Rancho Chack

In America, the use of wells as a means of water supply is of great antiquity, dating back to pre-historic races. In the United States, along the valley of the Mississippi, artificially walled wells have been found that are believed to have been built by a race of people who preceded the Indians. Primitive tribes that lived in the hills sometimes had their ingenuity taxed to provide a water supply. In the hills or mountains of Yucatan, at Santa Ana, in the Sierra de Yucatan, there exists a well of great antiquity that shows the difficulty under which the aborigines labored in their search for water. The well is located on the Rancho Chack. It is not known whether this well was constructed by hand labor or is one of the numerous caverns in the rock, fashioned by the boundless forces of nature, and with which the hills abound. Water is reached after descending by ladder a distance of over 100 feet and traversing a passage 2,700 feet long or about half a mile in length. The rocky sides of the tunnel are worn smooth by the friction of clothes or bodies brushing against the surface, and the roof of the tunnel is black from soot and smoke from countless torches that have lighted water bearers to the spot where a pool of clear, lukewarm water bars the passage. How many centuries this little subterranean pool has supplied water to the natives of this region there is no means of ascertaining. The well is used at the present time, and perhaps when Carthage was a village, Rome a wilderness, and Christianity unthought of, this little pool of water hidden in the bowels of the earth and accessible only after traversing a dark, slippery, perilous passage, was to the Indians of that locality what the old oaken bucket was to the New England villagers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

ANCIENT ROMAN FOVNTAIN AT CORINTH

GREEK PEASANTS WASHING CLOTHES

(See page iv)

CHAPTER II

Chapter II

Synopsis of Chapter. Cisterns—Early Mention of Cisterns—Cisterns of Carthage—Early Methods of Raising Water—Water Carriers—Pool of Siloam—Pool of Solomon—Aqueducts—Carthagenian Aqueduct—Aqueducts of Rome—Aqueducts of Segovia, Spain—Trophies of Marius.

The storage of water in cisterns or reservoirs is by no means a modern practice. The earliest tribes of whom we have any traditions or records resorted to this method for providing a supply of water. In xi Kings, 18-31, the first mention is made of cisterns in "Drink ye every one the water of his cistern." The methods employed by the ancients to construct cisterns must have been laborious and unsatisfactory. Cement at that time was unknown and bricks were not made, so that the modern cistern, as we know it, could not have existed. No doubt in some localities where clay was plentiful the cisterns were scooped out of the earth and puddled with clay, just as many reservoirs of to-day are made. This method of constructing a cistern, however, would limit the form to a cup-shaped affair, which would be very difficult to roof over. If the cisterns were not covered, as much water might be lost by evaporation as would be used by the inhabitants, so that at its best a clay-puddled cistern must have been an unsatisfactory affair. In the locality of mountains and quarries, cisterns were hewn out of the solid rock. "They have forsaken me the fountain of living waters and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns that can hold no water."—Jer. 2-3. Rock-hewn cisterns must have made ideal storage reservoirs for water. The darkness of the cavern would prevent the growth of vegetation, while the thick walls of rock, affording a shelter from the sun, would keep the water cool and refreshing.

The Cisterns at Carthage. All that is left of the Ancient City

Pole and Bucket for Raising Water

It is worthy of noting here that the ancients seem to have been aware of the movement of ground water through the soil, a fact that was forgotten and rediscovered in comparatively recent times. In Prov. 5-15 the statement, "Drink waters out of thine own cistern and running waters out of thine own well," would lead to this conclusion, unless, indeed, they classed a bubbling spring as a well.

Ruins of Ancient Cisterns

The earliest known cistern or reservoir of which we have any authentic knowledge are the masonry cisterns or reservoirs that stored water for the supply of the ancient city of Carthage. These cisterns, which are wonderfully well preserved, are still to be seen on the site of the ancient Punic city, but outside of what was the walled city, before it was totally destroyed by the Romans.

Old Roman Water Wheel

Water Carrier with Jar

These cisterns were originally covered with earth, and it is due to that fact, perhaps, that they escaped destruction when the Romans razed the city. It is easy to criticise the judgment of others, and no doubt if all the facts were known, there were good and sufficient reasons why the Roman general did not destroy the cisterns and cut off the supply of water from Carthage during the siege of that city. But in the light of our present knowledge of warfare, when a water supply is considered a vulnerable point, most carefully guarded by the besieged, and the point of most furious attack by the besiegers, when the fall of the city is considered almost accomplished when its water supply is taken, it seems an oversight on the part of the Romans not to have discovered and destroyed the cisterns, particularly as the destruction of everything in the city and environs was their mission at Carthage. It is an oversight, however, for which we may be thankful, since it preserved for future times an interesting engineering work of great magnitude for that period.

The cisterns of Carthage are eighteen in number, and each 100 feet long, 20 feet wide and nearly 20 feet deep. They lie in two long parallel rows and empty into a common gallery situated between the rows. From this center collecting gallery the water was delivered through conduits direct to the city of Carthage.

The earliest method of raising water from a well, cistern or other source of supply was by hand. This method, however, was laborious and unsatisfactory, particularly when necessary to raise large quantities of water for irrigation purposes, or to supply the inhabitants of a community at a great distance or high elevation, and it was not long before the mechanical ingenuity of our ancestors devised means for transferring this arduous duty to oxen, asses or other beasts of burden. Sometimes, as in the case of the Romans, this work is made a penal punishment, and persons found guilty of certain offenses were sentenced to the water-wheel.

About the earliest known device for raising small quantities of water was the pole and bucket, which was commonly employed in Italy, Greece and Egypt. The great antiquity of this method of raising water is proved by representations of it in Egyptian paintings. It consisted of a bucket attached to a pole that was suspended by trunnions so located that when the bucket was filled with water the thick end of the pole would just balance the combined weight of bucket and water. This permitted its use for many hours at a time, when raising water for irrigation without greatly fatiguing the operator.

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