LESSON XXXVI.

Is the same idea expressed by the sentences in each group?—

1.	{I cut the paper.
	{The paper was cut by me.

2.	{John broke the window.
	{The window was broken by John.

3.	{He caught a bird.
	{A bird was caught by him.

With a certain form of the verb, its subject names the actor; with another form of the verb, the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form of the verb is called voice.

A transitive verb that represents the person or thing named by its subject as acting is said to be in the active voice; as, James struck the horse.

A transitive verb that represents the person or thing named by its subject as being acted upon is said to be in the passive voice; as, The horse was struck by James.

Note (a).—The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice, so that only transitive verbs can properly be used in the passive voice. There are, however, some exceptions to this principle. When an intransitive verb is followed by a phrase made up of a preposition and noun, the intransitive verb may often be used passively with the preposition as an adverbial adjunct; as, I despair of success. Success is despaired of by me. He shot at a bird. A bird was shot at by him.

Note (b).—The agent in the passive voice is indicated by the preposition by.

EXERCISE I.

Name the voice of each verb in the following sentences, and state the reason in each case:—

1.	He found his knife under the table.
2.	This curious bird was brought from Africa by a traveller.
3.	My friend has written two letters.
4.	This ring was given to me by my mother.
5.	The bird flew away into the bush.
6.	The old man was sick and hungry.
7.	Near the moulded arch he saw low, dark grottos within the cavern.
8.	These ample fields
	Nourished their harvests, here their herds were fed,
	Where haply by their stalls the bison lowed,
	And bowed his manèd shoulder to the yoke.—Bryant.

EXERCISE II.

Change the voice of each transitive verb in the preceding lesson.

LESSON XXXVII.

MODE.

Point out in the following sentences a verb that states something as a fact, one that is used in asking a question, one that mentions something merely thought of, and one that expresses a command:—

1.	He knows his lesson to-day.
2.	Are you first in the class?
3.	I hope that he succeed.
4.	Put away your books.

The manner in which the verb presents the idea is called the mode of the verb.

A verb that is used to state something as a fact, to ask a question, or to express a condition relating to an actual state of things, is in the indicative mode; as, He reads well. Does he read well? If he was guilty, his punishment was too light.

A verb that is used to express something merely thought of is in the subjunctive mode; as, I wish that he go. If he were present I would speak to him. Thy kingdom come.

Note.—The verb in conditional sentences is in the subjunctive mode only when it expresses something merely thought of.

A verb that expresses a command or request is in the imperative mode; as, Come into the house. Open your book.

EXERCISE I.

Name the mode or mood of each verb, and give the reason in each case:—

1.	Home they brought her warrior dead.—Tennyson.
2.	What sought they thus afar?—Hemans.
3.	If my standard-bearer fall, press where ye see my white plume—Macaulay.
4.	Thine own friend, and thy father’s friend, forsake not.—Bible.
5.	If fortune serve me I’ll requite this kindness.—Shakespeare.
6.	The meteor flag of England
	Shall yet terrific burn,
	Till danger’s troubled night depart,
	And the star of peace return.—Campbell.
7.	Backward, flow backward, O tide of the years!
	I am so weary of toil and of tears—
	Toil without recompense—tears all in vain—
	Take them, and give me my childhood again.—E. A. Allen.

EXERCISE II.

1. Write three sentences each containing an example of the indicative mode.

2. Write three sentences each containing an example of the subjunctive mode.

3. Write three sentences each containing an example of the imperative mode.

LESSON XXXVIII.

The preceding lesson treated of verbs that are limited by their subjects as to number and person; as, I am here. John is here. The boys are here. Hence these verbs are called finite verbs.

This lesson will treat of verbs that are not so limited; hence they are called infinitive verbs.

THE INFINITIVE.

Select from the following sentences forms of verbs that are used (1) as a noun, (2) as an adverb, and (3) as an adjective:—

1.	I like to sing.
2.	I came to see the ship.
3.	Have you any water to drink?

The form of the verb that does not make an assertion, and that is not limited as to person and number is called the infinitive.

The infinitive may be used as a noun; as, To forgive is divine.

The infinitive may be used as an adverb; as, I came to call you back.

The infinitive may be used as an adjective; as, He has no pen to write with.

The infinitive may be used as the complement of verbs of incomplete predication; as, He appeared to hesitate.

There are two infinitives, the simple infinitive with or without to, and the infinitive in ing; as, I like to row a boat. He may go. She is fond of writing letters.

The infinitive in ing is sometimes called a gerund.

The infinitive has a variety of uses. Its grammatical value in English is always determined by its function in the sentence.

Name the infinitives in the following sentences, tell the grammatical value of each, and state the reason:—

1.	To read well is an accomplishment.
2.	I am glad to hear it.
3.	This man has a house to rent.
4.	There is little hope of finding him.
5.	To hesitate is to fail.
6.	She was about to leave.
7.	Poverty is hard to bear.
8.	When the rain ceased to fall, the wind began to blow.
9.	I prefer to starve first.
10.	There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray,
	To bless the turf that wraps their clay;
	And Freedom shall a while repair,
	To dwell a weeping hermit there.—Collins.

LESSON XXXIX.

THE PARTICIPLE.

Select the words in the following sentences that are used to modify nouns, and also imply action or being:—

1.	On came the boy running lightly.
2.	Hearing the noise, I went to the door.
3.	I have a book written in Old English.

A word that participates in the nature of the verb and the adjective is called a participle; as, Leaving the room, we walked into the garden. I found a treasure hidden in the ground.

A participle qualifies a noun or pronoun, like an adjective, and takes modifiers like a verb. A participle formed from a transitive verb takes an object.

A participle that is used to denote unfinished action is called a present or imperfect participle; as, Jumping the fence, I ran across the field.

A participle that is used to denote finished action is called a past or perfect participle; as, He gave me a pencil painted red.

EXERCISE I.

Classify the participles in the following sentences and tell what each modifies:—

1.	Onward they went, carrying death and ruin before them.—Lever.
2.	I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft.—Campbell.
3.	The cuirassiers, repulsed, disordered, and broken, had retired beneath the protection of the artillery.—Lever.
4.	And, his chief beside,
	Smiling, the boy fell dead.—Browning.
5.	Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again;
	The eternal years of God are hers.—Bryant.
6.	Toiling,—rejoicing,—sorrowing,
	Onward, through life he goes.—Longfellow.
7.	Poor lone Hannah,
	Sitting at the window binding shoes.
	Faded, wrinkled,
	Sitting, stitching, in a mournful muse.—Lucy Larcom.

EXERCISE II.

Determine the grammatical value of the italicized words in the following sentences, according to the use of each:—

1.	Walking is good exercise.
2.	Seeing me coming, he came to meet me.
3.	This building cost one hundred thousand dollars.
4.	Every bleaching breeze chastens her purity.
5.	He gave up all hope of recovering his health.
6.	The fields are covered with growing grain.
7.	A miser gives up all the pleasure of doing good.
8.	Kneeling down, I kissed the little flower.

LESSON XL.

TENSE.

State the time of the action in each of the following sentences, and point out the different forms of the verb:—

1.	He writes a letter.
2.	He wrote a letter.
3.	He will write a letter.

The change which takes place in the verb to mark this change of time, is called tense.

There are three natural divisions of time—present, past, and future, so that there are three corresponding tenses—present, past, and future.

A verb that denotes an action in the present time is in the present tense; as, I speak.

A verb that denotes an action in the past time is in the past tense; as, I spoke.

A verb that denotes an action in the future time is in the future tense; as, I shall speak.

Besides these three simple tenses, there are three perfect tenses, which denote action as completed.

Point out a verb in the following sentences that denotes an action completed in present time, one that denotes an action completed in past time, and one that denotes an action completed in future time:—

1.	He has written a letter.
2.	He had written a letter.
3.	He will have written a letter.

A verb that denotes an action as completed at the present time is in the present perfect tense; as, I have spoken.

A verb that denotes an action as having been completed before a certain past time is in the past perfect or pluperfect tense; as, I had spoken before you came.

A verb that denotes an action to be completed before a certain future time is in the future perfect tense; as, I shall have spoken before he will arrive.

The present and the past tenses are indicated by the form of the verb itself. The other tenses are formed by the aid of other verbs, called auxiliary verbs.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE.

	Present.	I see.
	Past.	I saw.
	Future.	I shall see.
	Present Perfect.	I have seen.
	Past Perfect.	I had seen.
	Future Perfect.	I shall have seen.

Note.—Shall is used in the first person, and will in the second and third persons to denote future action. Will is used in the first person, and shall in the second and third persons to denote determination.

EXERCISE.

Select the verbs, and state the tense of each:—

1.	The sailor twitched his shirt of blue,
	And from within his bosom drew
	The kerchief. She was wild.—Alice Cary.
2.	The Christian princes felt that the scene which they had
	beheld weighed heavily on their spirits.—Scott.
3.	The boy stood on the burning deck,
	Whence all but he had fled.—Hemans.
4.	The nurse sleeps sweetly, hired to watch the sick,
	Whom sleeping, she disturbs.—Cowper.
5.	When kindness had his wants supplied,
	And the old man was gratified,
	Began to rise his minstrel pride.—Scott.
6.	He was a man, take him for all in all,
	I shall not look upon his like again.—Shakespeare.

LESSON XLI.

PERSON AND NUMBER.

Point out the different forms of the verb that are used with the different subjects:—

	Singular.	Plural.
First Person.	I write.	We write.
Second Person.	Thou writest.	You write.
Third Person.	He writes.	They write.

The different forms that a verb takes to agree with the person and number of its subject are called person and number forms.

Observe that there is no change in the action expressed by the verb; it has merely adapted itself to the person and number of its subject.

The third person singular has, in the present indicative, the ending s or es, and the old form eth; as, He walks; He goes; He dreameth.

The second person singular has the ending est or st in both the present and the past tenses; as, Thou lovest; Thou lovedst.

The first person singular and the plural forms for all the persons have no endings to mark person and number, with but one exception, the verb to be; as, I am; We are; I was; We were.

EXERCISE.

Write out the present tense forms, indicative mode, of the following verbs, using the personal pronouns for subjects:—

	live,	find,	come,	teach,	talk,
	go,	run,	play,	make,	do.

LESSON XLII.

CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERB.

Point out how the past tense and perfect participle of the following verbs are formed:—

Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle.
wish,	wished,	wished.
love,	loved,	loved.
take,	took,	taken.
write,	wrote,	written.

A verb that forms its past tense and perfect participle by adding ed or d to the present tense form, is a verb of the weak or new conjugation; as, look, looked, looked.

A verb that forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the present, and its perfect participle by adding n or en to the present, is a verb of the strong or old conjugation; as, fall, fell, fallen.

Note.—Verbs of the old conjugation are called strong because they form their past tense within themselves. Verbs of the new conjugation are called weak because they form their past tense by the aid of an additional syllable.

Weak verbs are called verbs of the new conjugation because the method of forming the past tense by the addition of ed or d is of more recent origin than the method of the strong conjugation.

If we know the present tense form, the past, and the perfect participle of any verb, we can tell to which conjugation it belongs, and can give all its inflections of person, number, tense, and mode, therefore the present tense form, the past and the perfect participle, are called the principal parts of the verb. When we give all the inflections of a verb, or indicate them by the principal parts, we conjugate it.

LESSON XLIII.

IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE WEAK CONJUGATION.

We have learned that regular verbs of the weak conjugation form their past tense and perfect participle by adding ed or d to the present tense form.

Point out how the following verbs form their past tense and perfect participle:

Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle.
mean,	meant,	meant.
sleep,	slept,	slept.
say,	said,	said.
cost,	cost,	cost.

In some verbs the ed or d of the past tense is sounded like t, and in many cases the spelling has changed to t. A few verbs shorten the vowel of the present; as, feel, felt, felt. Other verbs of this conjugation change the vowel before adding d; as, tell, told, told; and a number that end in t or d make no change; as, set, set, set.

A LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE WEAK CONJUGATION.

Present.	Past.	Perf. Part.
bend,	bent,^[1]	bent.
bereave,	bereft,^[1]	bereft.
beseech,	besought,	besought.
bleed,	bled,	bled.
breed,	bred,	bred.
bring,	brought,	brought.
build,	built,^[1]	built.
burn,	burnt,^[1]	burnt.
burst,	burst,	burst.
buy,	bought,	bought.
cast,	cast,	cast.
catch,	caught,	caught.
cleave (adhere),	clave,^[1]	cleaved.
clothe,	clad,^[1]	clad.
cost,	cost,	cost.
creep,	crept,	crept.
cut,	cut,	cut.
dare,	durst,^[1]	dared.
deal,	dealt,	dealt.
dream,	dreamt,^[1]	dreamt.
dwell,	dwelt,^[1]	dwelt.
feed,	fed,	fed.
feel,	felt,	felt.
flee,	fled,	fled.
gild,	gilt,^[1]	gilt.
gird,	girt,^[1]	girt.
have,	had,	had.
hear,	heard,	heard.
hit,	hit,	hit.
hurt,	hurt,	hurt.
keep,	kept,	kept.
kneel,	knelt,	knelt.
knit,	knit,^[1]	knit.
lay,	laid,	laid.
lead,	led,	led.
lean,	leant,^[1]	leant.
leap,	leapt,^[1]	leapt.
learn,	learnt,^[1]	learnt.
leave,	left,	left.
lend,	lent,	lent.
let,	let,	let.
light,	lit,^[1]	lit.
lose,	lost,	lost.
make,	made,	made.
mean,	meant,	meant.
meet,	met,	met.
pay,	paid,	paid.
pen (enclose),	pent,^[1]	pent.
put,	put,	put.
quit,	quit,^[1]	quit.
read,	read,	read.
rend,	rent,	rent.
rid,	rid,	rid.
say,	said,	said.
seek,	sought,	sought.
sell,	sold,	sold.
send,	sent,	sent.
set,	set,	set.
shed,	shed,	shed.
shoe,	shod,	shod.
shoot,	shot,	shot.
shut,	shut,	shut.
sleep,	slept,	slept.
smell,	smelt,^[1]	smelt.
speed,	sped,	sped.
spell,	spelt,^[1]	spelt.
spend,	spent,	spent.
spill,	spilt,^[1]	spilt.
spit,	spit,	spit.
split,	split,	split.
spoil,	spoilt,^[1]	spoilt.
spread,	spread,	spread.
sweat,	sweat,	sweat.
sweep,	swept,	swept.
teach,	taught,	taught.
tell,	told,	told.
think,	thought,	thought.
thrust,	thrust,	thrust.
weep,	wept,	wept.
wet,	wet,^[1]	wet.
whet,	whet,^[1]	whet.
work,	wrought,^[1]	wrought.

[1]	Sometimes conjugated regularly.