If a splash of acid should happen to enter the eye, it should be washed at once with clean water, warm water preferably, and then put one or two drops of olive oil into the eye. If olive oil be not immediately available, any kind of engine oil is better than none at all.

Points on Care and Management.—In setting up storage cells, they should be placed in as few tiers as possible, and in such a manner that the direct rays of the sun are not allowed to fall upon the cells. The rays of the sun are likely to crack the glass. This is probably due to the unequal expansion of the glass, for it has been found that jars which are carefully annealed never crack in this manner. Of course, the latter precaution does not apply to large batteries, where lead lined wooden tanks or solid lead boxes are used.

In installing plants where expert attendance is not to be had, it is well to place in the circuit two magnetic cut outs, one set for maximum current, and the other for minimum voltage, so that the battery cannot be discharged too low.

Ques. How should the cells be placed?

Ans. They should be placed as shown in fig. 1,151, on insulators A, resting on wooden stringers B, and supporting pieces C placed on the floor. The insulators are usually of glass or porcelain, which in certain patterns may be filled with oil, to insure better insulation as shown in figs. 1,165 and 1,166.

In setting up a battery, it should be remembered that plates deteriorate on standing exposed to the air. They should, therefore, be unpacked and set up immediately on arrival. When they are entirely connected up, they are ready for the addition of the electrolyte, and for the forming charge, which they should receive immediately.

Ques. How should the wooden stringers, shelves, cell boards, and trays be treated?

Ans. They should be thoroughly varnished to insure cleanliness as well as good insulation.

Outside of each cell and close to the mouth, melted paraffine should be applied by means of a brush, so as to form a band about an inch wide, for the purpose of preventing the electrolyte creeping over the top of the jar, wetting the outside, and thereby impairing the insulation.

Ques. What should be done to avoid waste of current by leakage?

Ans. Each cell of the battery must be thoroughly insulated.

Ques. What is the effect of verdigris which forms on the terminals?

Ans. It is a poor conductor and should therefore be removed and the terminals kept bright and clean to insure the proper flow of the current.

Ques. What precautions should be taken in unpacking cells?

Ans. The plates should be handled carefully. When they are sent out from the factory already built into sections, they should be unpacked without disturbing a single plate. In all cases, every particle of packing, straw, hay and any chips and bits of parts should be carefully removed, and all the dust should be blown out of the spaces between the plates by means of a bellows or other similar device.

NOTE.—Champion directions for repairs. To replace broken jars in a battery remove the lid and lift out elements bodily. Empty the good jars with a syringe or by tilting the battery over. Never put the acid in any vessel except glass, stone or lead. Put new jars in place same as others and run melted paraffine around the edges. The wax must be broken off the elements that are to go into new jars and be poured on again. Fill the jars with acid to ¾" from tops. Melt the broken wax in a tin ladle and pour over the acid about ½" thick. Do not fill with wax to tops of jars. When the wax gets cold it will be found to have shrunk away from the edges of the jars. Fill up the opening with a little melted paraffine wax by means of a squirt can. Cut a small hole in the middle of the wax seal for a vent. Smear the brass posts and terminals and inside of case with vaseline to prevent creeping of the acid. The "6-25-G" requires one-half gallon of acid and the "6-50-G" one gallon.

Although such particles are good non-conductors, the action of the sulphuric acid electrolyte carbonizes them, giving them conducting properties which tend to produce leakage.

Ques. How should the cells be assembled?

Ans. In placing the plates or plate sections in the containing jars or tanks, care should be taken to see that the supporting frame of paraffined wood bears evenly on the bottom of the jar. If they do not, wedges of paraffined wood should be placed under the frame, so as to distribute the weight of the section equally. Each section should be lowered gently into the jar until it rests fairly upon the frame, and care should be taken to see that none of the plates have shifted, and that the section is situated centrally in the jar, with a small clear space all around.

Ques. How should the cells be arranged?

Ans. They should be so placed that the battery attendant can see the edges of the plates and consequently the spaces between them at the same time.

Ques. Describe the method of connecting the cells.

Ans. This is accomplished by means of solder, bolts and nuts, or clamps, according to circumstances. The use of solder is not essential if there be a good surface of the lead strip of one cell in contact with that of the next, and provided these contact surfaces have been well cleaned. Usually, the ends of the lead strips are turned up so that the junction of two cells takes the form of an inverted T as shown in fig. 1,162.

Ques. What precaution should be taken in joining the terminals of the cells?

Ans. The contact at the junctions should be very thorough, otherwise they will become heated when a current is flowing, and it is desirable that the connections should include as little lead strip in the circuit as possible, thereby reducing the amount of useless resistance.

Brass or gun metal clamps may be kept clean by brushing them over with melted paraffin after they have been screwed up tightly. When thus treated they serve to indicate points of bad contact by heat, generated at such points, when the current is flowing, softening the paraffin and changing its normal color. Vaseline and different kinds of anti-sulphuric acid varnishes, or preparations that are not attacked by the electrolyte, may also be used for this purpose. It is a good plan to color the varnish with vermillion or lamp black and paint the positive connections red and the negative connections black, and also other parts of the installation for distinguishing the polarities.

Cell Connections.—The cells may be connected together either in series or parallel, or in parallel-series or series-parallel combinations, according to the requirements, but in all cases it is best to use the simplest arrangement practicable.

For instance: if the cells employed in an installation requiring 110 volts, have only half the capacity required, and 55 cells give the desired voltage, then the number of cells must be increased to 110, and theoretically the required number of amperes hours at 110 volts may be obtained in one of two ways: 1, by connecting the cells in pairs in parallel and then coupling the pairs together in series, and 2, by arranging the 110 cells in two complete batteries of 55 cells each connected in series, then coupling the two batteries in parallel.

The first method is quite impracticable, however, as the slightest difference between the voltages of the two cells of any pair will result in the one having the greater pressure discharging into the other, thereby causing the entire battery to quickly deteriorate.

NOTE.—To determine the positive wire. Without a voltmeter, the positive terminal of the charging circuit can be determined by attaching a piece of clean lead to each wire which is to be connected to the battery, and immersing them, without touching each other, in a glass or other insulating vessel containing water to which is added a drop or two of sulphuric acid. After the current has passed through the circuit for a short time, the positive lead will commence to discolor, and, if left long enough, will turn brown. Bubbles will arise from the two terminals immersed, the larger and more frequent ones being from the negative, the smaller ones from the positive.

NOTE.—Method of disconnecting "National" cells. There are two methods of disconnecting the cells employing link connectors. First a ⅝ inch bit or twist drill may be used, boring down into the top of the posts about ¼ inch. The link will then be loosened and can be removed. This leaves the link, as well as the post, in good condition for reburning. Second the link may be cut in the center. A flame should be played on the top of the post, at the same time grasping the end of the half link firmly with pliers. When the connection has become warmed (care being taken not to melt the lead) the half link can be twisted loose from the port. New links may be used if desired in re-assembling the cells. It is not necessary to remove the covers from the element, the links may be cut in the center and the plates removed from the jars without removing the links from the ports. The links can be afterwards reburned together in the center. When the cells are equipped with "T" or "L" straps, they should be cut apart with hack saw or chisel midway between the cells, and in re-assembling, burned together at this point.

Battery Troubles.—To successfully cope with faults in storage batteries, there are two requisites: 1, a thorough knowledge of the construction and principle of operation of the battery, and 2, a well ordered procedure in looking for the source of trouble. The faults which are usually encountered by those who operate storage batteries are here given.

Short Circuiting.—A form of derangement that may occasionally affect storage batteries is short circuiting. It may be caused by some of the active material—if the cell be of the pasted variety—scaling off and dropping between the plates, or by an over collection of sediment in the bottom of the cell.

Should the operator suspect trouble with his battery he may discover a short circuited cell by the marked difference in color of the plates or of the specific gravity of the electrolyte, as compared with the other cells. No particular damage will be caused, if the trouble be discovered and removed before these symptoms become too marked.

If a foreign substance has become lodged between the plates, it may be removed by a wood or glass instrument.

If some of the active material has scaled off, it may be forced down to the bottom of the jar. If excessive sediment be found, the jar and plates should be washed carefully, and reassembled.

A cell that has been short circuited may be disconnected from the battery and charged and discharged several times separately which may remedy the trouble.

Ques. How are internal short circuits indicated?

Ans. Short circuits in a cell are indicated by short capacity, low voltage and low specific gravity, excessive heating and evaporation of the electrolyte.

Ques. How are internal short circuits located?

Ans. If the trouble cannot be located by the eye, the battery should be connected in series and discharged at the normal rate through suitable resistance. If a suitable rheostat be not available, a water resistance may be used.

This consists of a receptacle (which must not be of metal) filled with very weak acid solution, or with salt water in which are suspended two metal plates, which are connected by wires through an ammeter. The current may be regulated by altering the distance between the plates, or by varying the strength of the solution. As the discharge progresses the voltage will gradually decrease, and it should be frequently read at the battery terminals; as soon as it shows a sudden drop, the voltage of each cell should be read with a low reading voltmeter.

While the readings are being taken, the discharge rate should be kept constant and the discharge continued until the majority of the cells read 1.70 volts; those reading less should be noted. The discharge should be followed by a charge until the cells which read 1.70 volts are up, then the low cells should be cut out, examined, and the trouble remedied.

Overdischarge: Buckling.—On account of unequal expansion of the two sides of a plate, or certain portions thereof, the strains thus set up may distort it and cause it to assume a buckled shape, that is, bent so one side is concave.

Buckling is due always to over discharge on either the whole, or some portion of the plate. Occasional buckling may occur with too rapid charge and discharge.

Sulphation of Plates.—During discharge a storage cell deteriorates on account of the formation of lead sulphate over the surface of the plates. This lead sulphate is the product of the chemical combination of active material with the electrolyte. It is a non-conductor, white in color and of greater volume, in proportion than the active material. When the discharge is over prolonged, sulphation is evidenced by the electrodes becoming lighter in color, because of the sulphate which lessens the active surface.

Ques. Name some causes of sulphation.

Ans. It is sometimes caused by a too weak or too strong acid solution, but more generally by continued over discharging, or too rapid discharging of the batteries, or by allowing them to remain uncharged for long periods of time.

Ques. What is the effect of sulphation?

Ans. It tends to cause shedding of the active material, buckling of plates, loss of capacity, increase of resistance and consequent reduction of efficiency, and increase of temperature with flow of current. A sufficient amount of lead peroxide and sponge lead must be retained on the plates to reduce this resistance, otherwise the charging current cannot flow through the active material and regenerate the battery.

Ques. What should be done in case of sulphation?

Ans. Charge the battery below the maximum rate, necessarily prolonging the charge, until the plates assume the proper color. This is a tedious task, but it must not be hastened, as rapid charging will cause serious buckling.

NOTE.—How to destroy acid vapor in storage battery rooms: The best remedy is a good system of thorough and rapid ventilation; failing this the evil effect of the acid may be minimized by the fumes of a powerful alkali such as ammonia, which will readily combine with the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of ammonia, an inert and harmless salt. If the use of liquid ammonia be objectionable, the granulated carbonate of ammonia will do equally well. The ammonia fumes are best obtained by placing dilute ammonia in shallow dishes, so that an extensive evaporating surface is obtained. In the same way the corroding dew which is so frequently deposited on the lugs and connectors of storage battery elements may readily be neutralized by the application of a solution of ammonia, or even common washing soda. A good method of protecting metal work in battery rooms is to smear it over evenly with vaseline.

The charging should be done at low rates. Discharge should not be carried below 1.8 volts per cell, and the charging current should be stopped when each cell shows 2.4 volts.

If the plates be in a very bad condition, a little of the white sulphate deposit on each of the positive plates may be removed with a stick, thus exposing a part of the good surface to the action of the electrolyte.

If the positive plates cannot be restored to their proper color as directed, it is cheaper to replace them by a new set, rather than to attempt their recovery by means of reversals.

Lack of Capacity.—This is usually due to the clogging of the pores in the plate with sulphate which is invisible because the surface of the plate is maintained in proper condition but the interior portions of the active material have not been thoroughly reduced. To correct this condition, the battery should be given a prolonged overcharge at low current rates, say about one fourth the normal 8 hour charging rate.

NOTE.—Oxide of lead, litharge, or plumbic oxide is sometimes found native as lead ochre, and may be artificially made by heating the carbonate or nitrate. It is usually prepared on a larger scale by heating the lead in air. When the metal is only moderately heated, the oxide forms a yellow powder which is known as massicot, but at a higher temperature the oxide melts, and on cooling, it forms a brownish scaly mass, which is called flake litharge. The scaly pieces are afterwards ground between stones under water, forming buff or levegated litharge. The litharge of commerce often has a reddish yellow color, due to the presence of some of the red oxide of lead, and frequently from one to three per cent. of finely divided metallic lead is found mixed with it. When heated to dull redness litharge assumes a dark brown color, and becomes yellow again on cooling. At a bright red heat it fuses and readily attacks clay crucibles, forming silicate of lead. Litharge is a most powerful base, and has a strong tendency to form basic salts. Hot solution of alkalies, as potash or soda, readily dissolve it, and on cooling, it crystalizes out in the form of beautiful pink crystals.

Falling off in the capacity may be caused by a dry cell, due to a leaking jar; some or all of the cells may be in a state of incomplete charge, due to the battery having been run too low and not sufficiently charged; or the plates may be short circuited, either by the sediment (deposit in the bottom of the jar) getting up to the bottom of the plates or by something that has fallen into the cell.

Ques. What action takes place when a battery stands idle for some time?

Ans. It loses part of its charge, due to local losses in the cells.

Ques. How should batteries be treated, when used but occasionally?

Ans. If a battery is not to be used for several days, it should first be fully charged before standing; if it continue idle, a freshening charge should be given every two weeks, continuing the charge when the cells begin to gas freely.

Ques. What should be done in case of lack of capacity?

Ans. If the current consumption be normal, there may be poor connections or trouble in the battery; there may be a dry cell, due to a leaking jar; some or all of the cells may be in a state of incomplete charge, due to the battery having been run too low and not sufficiently charged, or the plates may be short circuited, either by the sediment (deposit in the bottom of the jar) getting up to the bottom of the plates or by something that has fallen into the cell.

Electrical Data on "Autex" Cells
(Standard plates; size, 5¾" x 8⅝")

Number of Plates		7	9	11	13	15	17	19	21
Discharge in Amperes for 4 hours		21	28	35	42	49	56	63	70
Outside Measurements Rubber Jars in inches.	{Length	2¾	3½	4¼	5	5¾	6½	7¼	8
	{Width	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛
	{Height	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜
Weight in Pounds	{Element	15¾	20¼	24¼	29¾	34	38½	43	47½
	{Electrolyte	4½	5	5¾	6¼	7	7¾	8½	9¾
	{Complete Cell	22	28	34¼	40½	47	53¼	59½	66

NOTE.—Peroxide of lead, pure oxide or plumbic dioxide is the true active material in all forms of lead storage cell. This lead salt is found native as the mineral plattnerite. It is a heavy lead ore, forming black, lustrous, six sided prisms. It may be prepared from the red oxide by boiling it in fine powder, with nitric acid diluted with five parts of water, or by treating the carbonate when suspended in water with a stream of chlorine gas, and then thoroughly washing and drying it. It is reduced to a lower oxide on heating or by exposure to bright sunlight. This salt readily imparts oxygen to other substances; it becomes heated to redness when thrown into sulphuric dioxide, and takes fire when triturated with sulphur—hence this oxide is a common ingredient in lucifer match composition. When used in primary or secondary batteries it readily imparts its oxygen to nascent hydrogen, forming water, and thus it acts as a powerful depolarizer. When robbed of its oxygen, it readily becomes reoxidized, if subjected to the action of nascent oxygen liberated by the electrolytic decomposition of water.

If the trouble cannot be located by the eye, connect the battery in series, and discharge it at the normal rate, through suitable resistance. If a suitable rheostat be not available, a water resistance may be used.

This consists of a receptacle (which must not be of metal) filled with very weak acid solution or salt water in which are suspended two metal plates, which are connected, by wires through an ammeter.

Electrical Data on "Autex" Cells
(Light weight plates; size, 5¾" × 8⅝")

Number of Plates		7	9	11	13	15	17	19	21	23	25
Discharge in Amperes for 5 hours		15¾	21	26¼	31½	36¾	42	47¼	52½	57¾	63
Outside Measurements Rubber Jars in in.	{Length	129/32	27/16	331/32	3½	41/32	49/16	53/32	5⅜	65/32	611/16
	{Width	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛	6⅛
	{Height	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜	12⅜
Weight in Pounds	{Element	11½	14¾	18	21¼	24½	27¾	31	34¼	37¼	40½
	{Electrolyte	2¼	2½	3	3¾	4¼	4¼	5½	6	6¾	7¼
	{Comp. Cell	15¾	20	24¼	28½	33¼	38	42	46¼	51½	56

The current may be regulated by altering the distance between the plates or by varying the strength of the solution. As the discharge progresses, the voltage will gradually decrease and it should be frequently read at the battery terminals. When it shows a sudden drop, the voltage of each cell should be read with a low reading voltmeter.

While the readings are being taken, the discharge rate should be kept constant and the discharge continued until the majority of the cells read 1.70 volts; those reading less should be noted. The discharge should be followed by a charge until the cells which read 1.70 volts are up; then the low cells should be cut out, examined and the trouble remedied.

NOTE.—How to prevent lead poisoning. Workmen employed in the manufacture of lead or lead salts are always liable to lead poisoning, both by inhaling the dust and by contact of the materials with the hands. Various preventives for this have been employed, and of these, the most simple seems to be a careful washing of the hands in petroleum. It is said that three washings a day are sufficient to prevent all serious danger of poisoning. The benzole in the petroleum appears to scour the skin and remove the loose lead dust, and the fatty substance in the oil fills up the pores of the skin and prevents the absorption of the deleterious salts. The employment of petroleum has given such good results that it has been proposed to use this material as a guard against poisoning in other industries where the salts of copper or mercury are employed.

Ques. What causes low specific gravity when there are no short circuits?

Ans. 1, sloppage or a leaky jar (the loss having been replaced with water alone), 2, insufficient charge, 3, over discharge, or 4, a combination of these abuses. Any of these mean that there is acid in combination with the plates.

In this case the acid should be brought out into the electrolyte by a long charge at a quarter of the normal discharge rate.

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Figs. 1,169 and 1,170.—The "National" storage battery; views showing methods of assembling cells. Fig 1,169, end assembling; fig 1,170, side assembling.

Ques. How should weak cells be treated?

Ans. They should be grouped by themselves and charged as a separate battery, care being taken that the positive strap of one cell, is connected to the negative strap of the adjoining cell and that the charging connections are properly made. If there be not sufficient resistance in the charging rheostat to reduce the current to the proper point, a water resistance should be used.

NOTE.—Pole testing paper. Make a thin solution of white starch and soak strips of thin white blotting paper in it, and set aside in a clean, dry place to dry. Dissolve ½ oz. of potassium iodide in one pint of water. Immerse the strips in the solution for a few seconds and again dry. This paper, when moistened and used in the usual way, turns violet at the positive pole.

While a cell is being treated, when possible, the cover should be removed (if sealed, the compound can be loosened by using a hot putty knife).

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Figs. 1,171 to 1,177.—"National" battery bolt connector and parts. The connector is equipped with grease cups and antimonious lead washers.

Disconnecting Cells.—The best method of disconnecting cells assembled with pillar straps, for the purpose of replacing broken jars, cleaning or taking out of commission, is to use a five-eighth inch twist drill, in a carpenter's brace, boring down into the top of the pillar about one-quarter inch; then pull off the connector sleeve from the pillar. By following this method, all parts may be used again.

When cells are equipped with top straps, the straps should be cut with a sharp knife or chisel midway between the cells.

Taking Batteries out of Commission.—Where a battery is to be out of service for several months, and it is not convenient to give it the freshening charge every two weeks, it should be taken out of commission.

COMPARISON OF THE BAUMÉ AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
SCALES AT 60° FAHRENHEIT

Degrees Baume	Specific Gravity	Degrees Baume	Specific Gravity	Degrees Baume	Specific Gravity	Degrees Baume	Specific Gravity
0	1.000	17	1.133	34	1.306	51	1.542
1	1.007	18	1.142	35	1.318	52	1.559
2	1.014	19	1.151	36	1.330	53	1.576
3	1.021	20	1.160	37	1.342	54	1.593
4	1.028	21	1.169	38	1.355	55	1.611
5	1.036	22	1.179	39	1.368	56	1.629
6	1.043	23	1.188	40	1.381	57	1.648
7	1.051	24	1.198	41	1.394	58	1.666
8	1.058	25	1.208	42	1.408	59	1.686
9	1.066	26	1.218	43	1.421	60	1.707
10	1.074	27	1.229	44	1.436	61	1.726
11	1.082	28	1.239	45	1.450	62	1.747
12	1.090	29	1.250	46	1.465	63	1.768
13	1.098	30	1.261	47	1.479	64	1.790
14	1.107	31	1.272	48	1.495	65	1.812
15	1.115	32	1.283	49	1.510	66	1.835
16	1.124	33	1.295	50	1.526

NOTE.—The characteristic properties of concentrated sulphuric acid are very marked. Its freedom from odor, oily appearance, and its great weight, distinguish it from other liquids. The pure concentrated commercial acid has a density which usually reaches 1.842, and its boiling point is about 640° F. The absolutely pure acid is perfectly colorless, but usually even that used in laboratories has a peculiar grayish color, due to slight traces of organic matter. Sulphuric acid is exceedingly hydroscopic, and when exposed to the air it rapidly increases in bulk, owing to absorption of atmospheric moisture.

NOTE.—Clamps not made of metal similar to that of the connecting strips, frequently give trouble from the galvanic action due to the contact of dissimilar metals in the presence of moisture which causes the destruction of either the connecting strip or the clamp. Such troubles can be avoided by placing a thin strip of sheet zinc between the lead strip and the clamp. Under these circumstances the zinc will crumble away, and can be replaced without much inconvenience and very little expense, while the clamps and connecting strips will remain uninjured.

Strength of Dilute Sulphuric Acid
of
Different Densities at 59° Fahr.

Per cent. of Sulphuric Acid	Specific Gravity	Per cent. of Sulphuric Acid	Specific Gravity
100	1.842	23	1.167
40	1.306	22	1.159
31	1.231	21	1.151
30	1.223	20	1.144
29	1.215	19	1.136
28	1.206	18	1.129
27	1.198	17	1.121
26	1.190	16	1.116
25	1.172	15	1.106
24	1.174	14	1.098

Ques. Describe the method of taking a battery out of commission.

Ans. The battery is charged in the usual manner, until the specific gravity of the electrolyte of every cell has stopped rising over a period of one hour (if there be any low cells, due to short circuits or other cause, they should be put in condition before the charge is started, so that they will receive the full benefit of it). The cells may now be disconnected and covers and elements removed from the jars, (if sealed, the compound is loosened with a hot putty knife). The elements are placed on their sides with the plates slightly spread apart at the bottom, the separators withdrawn, and the positive and negative groups pulled apart. The electrolyte is washed off with a gentle stream of water and the plates allowed to drain and dry.7 The positive plates are ready to be put away. When dry, the negatives are completely immersed in electrolyte (of about 1.275 specific gravity), and allowed to soak for three or four hours. The jars may be used for this purpose. After rinsing and drying, they are ready to be put away; wash also the rubber separators.

Wood separators, after having been in service, will not stand much handling and had better be thrown away. If it be thought worth while to keep them, they must be immersed in water or weak electrolyte, and in re-assembling, the electrolyte must be put into the cells immediately, as wet wood separators must not stand exposed to the air.

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