The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hawkins Electrical Guide Number 8, by Nehemiah Hawkins.

Ans. In all cases the oscillograms are obtained by a spot of light tracing out the curve connecting current or voltage with time. The source of light is an arc lamp, the light from which passes first through a lens, and then, excepting when projecting on a screen, through a rectangular slit about 10 mm. long by 1 mm. wide. The position of the lamp from the lens is adjusted till an image of the arc is obtained covering the three (two moving, one fixed) small oscillograph mirrors. The light is reflected back from these mirrors and, being condensed by a lens which is immediately in front of them, it converges till an image of the slit is formed on the surface where the record is desired. All that is necessary now to obtain a bright spot of light instead of this line image is to introduce in the path of the beam of light a cylindrical lens of short focal length.

Figs. 2,614 and 2,615.—Sectional view of permanent magnet form of Duddell moving coil oscillograph. This instrument has a lower natural period of vibration (1/3000 second) than the type shown in fig. 2,612, and therefore is not capable of accurately following wave forms of such high frequency, but it is sufficiently quick acting to follow wave forms of all ordinary frequencies with perfect accuracy. It is easier to repair, and more portable owing to the fact that the magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet instead of an electro-magnet. This also renders the instrument suitable for use on high tension circuits without earth connection, as, owing to the fact that no direct current excitation is required, the instrument is more easily insulated than other types.

Fig. 2,616.—Diagram of connections of Duddell oscillograph to high pressure circuit. The modification necessary for high pressure circuit only applies to the vibrator which gives the pressure wave and consists in adding two more resistances, R₄ and R₅. Referring to fig. 2,617, it will be seen that in case fuse f₂ blows, or the vibrator be accidentally broken, the full supply voltage is immediately thrown on the instrument itself. This is not permissible in high voltage work and therefore the resistance R₅ is introduced as a permanent shunt to the oscillograph vibrator. The resistance R₄ is an exact duplicate of R₂ being a 21 ohm plug resistance box for adjusting the sensitivity of the vibrator to an even figure. In practice R₅ is usually a part of R₁, and in most of the high voltage resistances, two taps are brought out near one end to serve as R₅. One of these taps is usually 50 ohms distant from the end terminal and the other only 5 ohms from the end. The use of these taps is as follows: The large resistance consisting of R₁ + R₅ is so chosen with respect to the voltage of the circuit under investigation that the current through R₁ is about .1 ampere. It should never be more than this continuously. Then R₄ is connected to the 50 ohm tap, and since the resistance of the oscillograph vibrator circuit is variable from about 5 to 26 ohms by means of R₄, the current can be controlled through the oscillograph from about .066 to .091 of an ampere, enabling an open wave form to a convenient scale to be obtained. If it now be desired to record large rises of pressure, such as may occur in cases of resonance, the height of the wave must be reduced in order to keep these rises on the plate. This is accomplished by disconnecting R₄ from the 50 ohm tap and connecting it to the 5 ohm tap, when the current through the vibrator will be from .05 to .016 of an ampere according to whether the resistance R₄ is in or out of circuit. When, instead of using the falling plate, the cinematograph camera is being used, it becomes necessary always to work on the 5 ohm tap since the width of the film is much less than that of the plate, and the current must therefore be less. In experiments where sudden rises of voltage are expected it is often advisable to keep R₁ as great as possible. That end of the resistance R₁ referred to as R₅ in the diagram should be securely connected to the supply main and no switch or fuse used. A switch may, if desired, be used in series with R₁, provided it be inserted at the point where R₁ joins the supply main remote from R₅. It will be seen that fuses f₁ and f₂ are shown. Provided that the connections are always made in accordance with the diagram, and the vibrators are always shunted by R₅ or R₃ respectively, there is not much objection to the use of these fuses, but on general principles it is wise to avoid fuses in high tension work and accordingly with each permanent magnet oscillograph, dummy fuses are supplied, which can be inserted in place of the ordinary fuses when desired. The remark previously made about keeping both vibrators and the frame of the instrument at approximately the same pressure applies with additional emphasis in high pressure work.

Ans. They simply control the direction of a beam of light in a horizontal plane in such a manner that its deflection from a zero position depends on the current passing through the instrument, and it is therefore evident that the oscillograph is not complete without means of producing a time scale.

Fig. 2,617.—Diagram of connections of Duddell oscillograph to low pressure circuit, R₁ is a high non-inductive resistance connected across the mains in series with one of the vibrators. S₂ is a switch, and f₂, the fuse (on the oscillograph in this circuit). The resistance of R₁ in ohms should be rather more than ten times the voltage of the circuit, so that a current of a little less than .1 of an ampere will pass through it. The vibrator will then give the curve of the circuit on an open scale. (For the projection oscillograph, the resistance R₁ should be only twice the supply voltage, since .5 of an ampere is required to give full scale deflection on a large screen.) To obtain the current wave form, the shunt R₃ is connected in series with the circuit under investigation and the second vibrator is connected across this shunt. Here also f₁ is a fuse, S₁ a switch, and R₂ an adjustable resistance box. The switch S₁ is however unnecessary if the plug resistance box supplied for R₂ be used, since an infinity plug is included in this box. The shunt R₃ should have a drop of about 1 volt across it in order to give a suitable working current through the vibrator. The resistance R₂ is not absolutely essential, but it is a great convenience in adjusting the current through the vibrator. It is a plug resistance box, the smallest coil being .04 of an ohm and the total 21 ohms. Being designed to carry .5 ampere continuously it can be used with any other type of Duddell oscillograph, and by its use the sensitiveness of the vibrator can be adjusted so that a round number of amperes in the shunt gives 1 mm. deflection. This adjustment is best made with direct current. It should be noted in connecting the oscillograph in circuit, that the two vibrators should be so connected to the circuit that it is impossible that a higher pressure difference than 50 volts should exist between one vibrator and the other, or between either vibrator and the frame. To ensure attention to this important point, a brass strap is provided which connects the two vibrators together and to the frame of the instrument. This does not mean that this point must necessarily be earthed since the frame of the instrument is insulated from the earth. It is advisable, however, to earth it when possible.

Figs. 2,618 and 2,619.—Two curves obtained with the falling plate camera and illustrating the discharge of a condenser through an inductive circuit. When taking curve A the resistance in the circuit was very small compared to the inductance, while before taking curve B an additional non-inductive resistance was inserted in the circuit so that the oscillations were damped out much more rapidly although the periodic time remained approximately constant.

Ques. What kind of recording apparatus is used with the Duddell oscillograph?

Fig. 2,620.—Synchronous motor with vibrating mirror as used with Duddell moving coil oscillograph. Since the motor must run synchronously with the wave form it is required to investigate, it should be supplied with current from the same source. The motor can be used over a wide range of frequencies (from 20 to 120). When working at frequencies below 40, it is advisable to increase the moment of inertia of the armature, and for this purpose a suitable brass disc is used. The armature carries a sector, which cuts off the light from the arc lamp during a fraction of each revolution, and a cam which rocks the vibrating mirror. It makes one revolution during two complete periods, and the cam and sector are so arranged that during 1½ periods, the mirror is turning with uniform angular velocity, while during the remaining half period, the mirror is brought back quickly to its angular position, the light being cut off by the sector during this half period.

Ans. In this arrangement a photographic plate is allowed to fall freely by the force of gravity down a dark slide. At a certain point in its fall it passes a horizontal slit through which the beams of light from the oscillograph pass, tracing out the curves on the plate as it falls.

Figs. 2,621 to 2,623.—Interior of cinematograph camera as used on Duddell moving coil oscillograph for obtaining long records. The loose side of case is shown removed and one of the reels which carry the film lying in front. The spool of film which is placed on the loose reel A, passes over the guide pulley B, then vertically downward between the brass gate D (shown open in the figure), and the brass plate C. The exposure aperture is in the plate C and can be opened or closed by a shutter controlled by the lever M. The groove in the plate C, and the springs which press the gate D flat on the plate C, prevent the film having any but a vertical motion as it passes the exposure slit. E is the sprocket driving pulley which engages with the perforations on the film and unwinds it from the reel A to reel H. Outside the case on the far side of it is secured to the axle G a three speed cone pulley. This is driven by a motor of about 1/7 horse power, which also drives, through the gears shown, the sprocket pulley E. Close to the grooved cone pulley is a lever carrying a jockey pulley L, and a brake, which latter is normally held onto the cone pulley by a spring and so causes the loose belt to slip. By pressing a lever which is attached to the falling plate camera case, the brake can be suddenly released and at the same time the jockey pulley caused to tighten the belt onto the grooved cone pulley, so that the starting and stopping of the film is controlled independently of the driving motor, and being quickly accomplished avoids waste of film. Both reels are alike and each is made in two pieces. The upper reel is loose on its axle and its motion is retarded slightly by a friction brake. The lower reel is also loose on its axle, but it is driven by means of a friction clutch, the clutch always rotating faster than the reel so that the used film delivered by the sprocket pulley E is wound up as fast as delivered. K is the front face of one reel, the boss on it pushes into the tube on the other half H, which serves not only to unite the two halves, but also to secure the end of the film which is doubled through J.

Fig. 2,624.—Portion of oscillograph record taken with cinematograph film camera, showing the rush of current and sudden rise of voltage at the moment of switching on a high pressure feeder.

Fig. 2,625.—Portion of oscillograph record taken with a cinematograph film camera showing the effect of switching off a high pressure feeder and illustrating the violent fluctuations produced by sparking at the switch contacts.

For instance, in investigations, such as observation on the paralleling of alternators, the running up to speed of motors, and the surges which may occur in switching on and off cable, etc. The cinematograph camera fits on to the falling plate case and by means of which a roll of cinematograph film can be driven at a uniform speed past the exposure aperture, enabling records up to 50 metres in length to be obtained. An interior view of the cinematograph camera is shown in fig. 2,621.

Fig. 2,626.—Curves reproduced from an article by J. T. Morris in the Electrician. "On recording transitory phenomena by the oscillograph."

Fig. 2,627.—First rush of current from an alternator when short circuited, showing unsymmetrical initial wave of current, becoming symmetrical after a few cycles. 25 cycles.

Fig. 2,628.—Pressure wave obtained from narrow exploring coil on alternator armature, indicating distribution of field flux. The terminal voltage of the alternator is very nearly a sine wave, 60 cycles; about 17 volts.

Fig. 2,629.—The waves of voltage and current of an alternating arc. A, voltage wave; B, current wave showing low power factor of the arc without apparent phase displacement. 60 cycles.

Fig. 2,630.—Rupturing 650 volt circuit. A, current wave; B, 25 cycle wave to mark time scale.

Fig. 2,631.—First rush of current from alternator when short circuited, showing unsymmetrical current wave, also wave of field current caused by short circuit current in armature. Upper curve, armature current; lower curve, field current.

Fig. 2,632.—Mazda (tungsten) lamp, showing rapid decrease to normal current as filament heats up. 25 cycles.

Fig. 2,633.—Current wave in telephone line corresponding to sustained vowel sound "i," as in machine; voice pitched at A 110.

Fig. 2,634.—Carbon lamp, showing rapid increase to normal current as filament heats up. 25 cycles.

Fig. 2,635.—Short circuit current on direct current end of rotary converter, 21,500 amperes maximum. Upper curve, direct current voltage; lower curve, direct current amperage. Duration of short circuit about .1 second.

CHAPTER LXIV
SWITCHBOARDS

General Principles of Switchboard Connections.—The interconnection of generators, transformers, lines, bus bars, and switches with their relays, in modern switchboard practice is shown by the diagrams, figs. 2,636 to 2,645. The figures being lettered A to J for simplicity, the generators are indicated by black discs, and the switches by open circles, while each heavy line represents a set of bus bars consisting of two or more bus bars according to the system of distribution. It will be understood, also, in this connection, that the number of pole of the switches and the type of switch will depend upon the particular system of distribution employed.

Diagram A, shows the simplest system, or one in which a single generator feeds directly into the line. There are no transformers or bus bars and only one switch is sufficient.

In B, a single generator supplies two or more feeders through a single set of bus bars, requiring a switch for each feeder, and a single generator switch.

In C, two generators are employed and required and the addition of a bus section switch.

D, represents a number of generators supplying two independent circuits. The additional set of bus bars employed for this purpose necessitates an additional bus section switch, and also additional selector switches for both feeders and generators.

E, shows a standard system of connection for a city street railway system having a large number of feeders.

Figs. 2,645 and 2,646.—Diagrams illustrating general principles of switchboard connections.

This arrangement allows any group of feeders to be supplied from any group of generators.

Fig. 2,646.—Fort Wayne switchboard panel for one alternator and one transfer circuit. Diagram giving dimensions, arrangement of instruments of board, and method of wiring. The different forms of standard alternating current switchboard panels for single phase circuits made by the Fort Wayne Electric Works are designed to fulfill all the usual requirements of switchboards for this class of work. The line includes panels equipped for a single generator; for one generator and two circuits; one generator and one transfer circuit; one generator, an incandescent and an arc lighting circuit; and also feeder panels of different kinds.

It also permits the addition of a generator switch for each generator.

F, represents the simplest system with transformers.

It requires a single generator transformer bank, switch and line. The arrangement as show at F is used where a number of plants supply the same system.

G, represents a system having more than one line.

In this case a bus bar and transformer switch is used on the high tension side.

H, shows a number of generators connected to a set of low tension bus bars through generator switches, and employing a low tension transformer switch.

I, shows the connections of a system having a large number of feeders supplied by several small generators. In this case, the plant is divided into two parts, each of which may be operated independently.

J, represents the arrangement usually employed in modern plants where the generator capacity is large enough to permit of a generator transformer unit combination with two outgoing lines. By operating in parallel on the high tension side only, any generator can be run with any transformer. The whole plant can be run in parallel, or the two parts can be run separately.

Fig. 2,647.—General Electric small plant alternating current switchboard, designed for use in small central stations and isolated plants. They are for use with one set of bus bars, to which all generators and feeders are connected by means of single throw lever switches or circuit breakers, suitable provision being made for the parallel operation of the generators.

Fig. 2,648.—Crouse-Hinds voltmeter and ground detector radial switch, arranged for mounting on the switchboard. The switch proper is placed on the rear of the board with hand wheel, dial, and indicator only on the front side. The current carrying parts are of hard brass, with contact surfaces machined after assembling. The contact parts are of the plunger spring type, and the cross bar has fuse connections. Ground detector circuits are marked G+ and G- for two wire system, and G+, G-, GN+ and GN- for three wire system. When the voltmeter switch is to be used as a ground detector, two circuits are required for a two wire system, and four circuits for a three wire system, that is, a six circuit voltmeter and ground detector switch for use on a two wire system has two circuits for ground detector and four circuits for voltmeter readings. A six circuit voltmeter and ground detector switch, for use on a three wire system, has four circuits for ground detector and two circuits for voltmeter readings.

In construction, the marble or slate should be free from metallic veins, and for pressures above, say, 600 volts, live connections, terminals, etc., should preferably be insulated from the panels by ebonite, mica, or removed from them altogether, as is generally the case with the alternating gear where the switches are of the oil type.

Figs. 2,649 and 2,650,—Wiring diagrams of Crouse-Hinds voltmeter and ground detector switches. Fig. 2,649 voltmeter switch; fig. 2,650 voltmeter and ground detector switch. A view of the switch is shown in fig. 2,648; it is designed for use on two or three wire systems up to 300 volts.

Generator Panel.—This section of a switchboard carries the instruments and apparatus for measuring and electrically controlling the generators. On a well designed switchboard each generator has, as a rule, its own panel.

Figs. 2,651 to 2,653.—Diagrams of connections for generator panels. Key to symbols: A, ammeter; A.S., ammeter switch; C.T., current transformer; F., fuse; F.A., direct current field ammeter; F.S., field switch; G.C.S., governor control switch; L.S., limit switch (included with governor motor); O.S., oil switch; P.I.W., polyphase indicating wattmeter; P.W.M., polyphase watthour meter; P.R., pressure receptacle; P.P., pressure plug; Rheo., rheostat; S., shunt; S.R., synchronizing receptacle; S.P., synchronizing plugs; T.B., terminal board for instrument leads; V, alternating current voltmeter.

Figs. 2,654 and 2,655.—Diagrams illustrating a simple method of determining bus capacity as suggested by the General Electric Co. Fig. 2,654 relates to any panel; the method is as follows: 1. Make a rough plan of the entire board, regardless of the number of panels to be ordered. The order of panels shown is recommended, it being most economical of copper and best adapted to future extensions. 2. To avoid confusion keep on one side of board everything pertaining to exciter buses, and on other side everything pertaining to A. C. buses. 3. With single lines represent the exciter and A. C. buses across such panels as they actually extend and by means of arrows indicate that portion of each bus which is connected to feeders and that portion which is connected to generators. Remember that "Generator" and "Feeder" arrows must always point toward each other, otherwise the rules given below do not hold. Note also that the field circuits of alternator panels are treated as D. C. feeders for the exciter bus. 4. On each panel mark its ampere rating, that is, the maximum current it supplies to or takes from the bus. For A. C. alternator panels the D. C. rating is the excitation of the machines. 5. Apply the following rules consecutively, and note their application in fig. 2,654. (For the sake of clearness ampere ratings are shown in light face type and bus capacities in large type.) A. Always begin with the tail of the arrow and treat "generator" and "feeder" sections of the bus separately. B. Bus capacity for first panel = ampere rating of panel. C. Bus capacity for each succeeding panel = ampere rating of panel plus bus capacity for preceding panel. (See sums marked above the buses in fig. 2,654.) D. For a panel not connected to a bus extending across it, use the smaller value of the bus capacities already obtained for the two adjoining panels. (See exciter bus for panel C.) E. The bus capacity for any feeder panel need not exceed the maximum for the generator panels (see A. C. bus for panel G) and vice versa (see exciter bus for panel B). Hence the corrections made in values obtained by applying rules B and C. The arrangement of panels shown in fig. 2,654 is the one which is mostly used. The above method may, however, be applied to other arrangements, one of which is shown in fig. 2,655. Here the generators must feed both ways to the feeders at either end of the board so that in determining A. C. bus capacities it is necessary to first consider the generators with the feeders at one end, and then with the feeders at the other end as shown by the dotted A. C. buses. The required bus capacities are then obtained by taking the maximum values for the two cases.

Fig. 2,656.—End view showing general arrangement of switchboards for 240, 480, and 600 volt alternating current. The cut shows a single throw oil switch mounted on the panel.

Figs. 2,657 and 2,658.—Two views of a feeder panel, showing general arrangement of the devices assembled thereon. A, circuit breaker; B, ammeter; C, voltmeter; D, switches.

Figs. 2,659 to 2,666.—Diagram of connections for three phase feeder panels. Key to symbols: A, ammeter; A.S., three way ammeter switch; B.A.S., bell alarm switch; C.T., current transformer; F, fuse; O.S., oil switch; P.I.W., polyphase indicating wattmeter; P.W.M., polyphase watthour meter; T.B., terminal board; T.C., trip coils for oil switch.

Figs. 2,667 and 2,668.—Diagrams of connections for two phase and three phase installations: A and A1, ammeter; C.C., constant current transformer; C.T., current transformer; D.R., discharge resistance; F, fuse; F.S., field switch; L.A., lightning arrester; O.S., oil switch; P.P., pressure plug; P.R., pressure receptacle; P.T., pressure transformer; S and S1, plug switches; T.C., oil switch trip coil; V, voltmeter.

The equipment of a typical high pressure three phase feeder panel is an ammeter (sometimes three ammeters, one in each phase) operated by a current transformer, and oil break switch with two overload release coils, or three if the neutral of the circuit be earthed, the releases being operated by current transformers.

Fig. 2,669.—Crouse-Hinds radial ammeter switch, arranged for mounting directly on the switchboard. It is designed for use with external shunt ammeters of any make or capacity, and in connection with the required number of shunts, makes possible the taking of current readings of a corresponding number of circuits by means of one ammeter. The wiring diagram is shown in fig. 2,670.

The switch when on a large system is often in a cell some distance behind the panel, and is then controlled by a system of levers, or by a small motor which is started and stopped by a throw over switch on the panel, in which case there is generally a lamp or lamps on the panel to show whether the switch is open or closed.

Air brake switches or links are placed between the bus bars and the oil switch to allow of the latter being isolated for inspection purposes, and as a general rule no apparatus carrying high pressure current is allowed on the front of the panel. With both direct and alternating current feeders, a watthour meter is often added to show the total consumption of the circuit.

Fig. 2,670.—Wiring diagram for Crouse-Hinds radial ammeter switch as illustrated in fig. 2,669. The switch proper is on the rear of the switchboard, and the hand wheel dial and indicator on the front.

A typical three phase generator panel is provided with three ammeters, one in each phase, operated from three current transformers, one to each ammeter, a volt meter, a power factor indicator, and an indicating watthour meter, all operated from one or more pressure transformers, and the necessary current transformers, the operating handle of the oil switch, which is connected to the switch itself by means of rods, two maximum releases operated by current transformers, or a reverse relay for automatically tripping the switch, lamps for indicating when the switch is tripped, a socket for taking the plug which makes connection between the secondary of a pressure transformer and the synchronizer on the synchronizing panel, and a lamp for illuminating purposes, while on the base of the panel or on a pillar at the front of the gallery is mounted the gear for the field circuit. This consists of a double pole field switch and a discharge resistance, an ammeter, a handle for the rheostat in the generator field, and (if each alternator have its own direct coupled exciter) possibly also a small rheostat for the exciter field.

NOTE.—In some cases where the capacity of the plant is not very great, the oil switch is mounted on the back of the panel, and the bus bars, current transformers, &c., on the framework, also just at the back of the panel, but under no circumstances, in good modern practice, is high pressure apparatus permitted on the front of the board. Where the capacity of the plant is very large, the oil switches are operated electrically by means of small motors, and in this case the small switch gear for starting and stopping this motor is mounted on the generator panel, also the lamp or lamps to indicate when the switch is open, and when closed.

CHAPTER LXV
ALTERNATING CURRENT WIRING

In the case of alternating current, because of its peculiar behaviour, there are several effects which must be considered in making wiring calculations, which do not enter into the problem with direct current.

1. Self-induction;
2. Mutual-induction;
3. Power factor;
4. Skin effect;
5. Corona effect;
6. Frequency;
7. Resistance.

Most of these items have already been explained at such length, that only a brief summary of facts need be added, to point out their connection and importance with alternating current wiring.

Induction.—The effect of induction, whether self-induction or mutual induction, is to set up a back pressure of spurious resistance, which must be considered, as it sometimes materially affects the calculation of circuits even in interior wiring.

Ques. What conditions besides variations of current strength governs the amount of self-induction in a circuit?

If the circuit be straight, there will be little self-induction, but if coiled, the effect will become pronounced. If the surrounding medium be air, the self-induction is small, but if it be iron, the self-induction is considerable.

Figs. 2,671 to 2,676.—The effect of self-induction. In a non-inductive circuit, as in fig. 2,672, the whole of the virtual pressure is available to cause current to flow through the lamp filament, hence it will glow with maximum brilliancy. If an inductive coil be inserted in the circuit as in fig. 2,674, the reverse pressure due to self-induction will oppose the virtual pressure, hence the effective pressure (which is the difference between the virtual and reverse pressures), will be reduced and the current flow through the lamp diminished, thus reducing the brilliancy of the illumination. The effect may be intensified to such degree by interposing an iron core in the coil as in fig. 2,676, as to extinguish the lamp.

Ans. Mutual induction is the effect of one alternating current circuit upon another.

CHAPTER LXIV SWITCHBOARDS

CHAPTER LXV ALTERNATING CURRENT WIRING

CHAPTER LXIV
SWITCHBOARDS

CHAPTER LXV
ALTERNATING CURRENT WIRING