THE
PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

By D. MENDELÉEFF


TRANSLATED FROM THE RUSSIAN (SIXTH EDITION) BY

GEORGE KAMENSKY, A.R.S.M.
OF THE IMPERIAL MINT, ST PETERSBURG: MEMBER OF THE RUSSIAN PHYSICO-CHEMICAL SOCIETY

EDITED BY

T. A. LAWSON, B.Sc. Ph.D.
EXAMINER IN COAL-TAR PRODUCTS TO THE CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE FELLOW OF THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY


IN TWO VOLUMES
VOLUME II.


LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1897

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Table III.

The periodic dependence of the composition of the simplest compounds and properties of the simple bodies upon the atomic weights of the elements.

Columns 1, 2, 3, and 4 give the molecular composition of the hydrogen and metallo-organic compounds, exhibiting the most characteristic forms assumed by the elements. The first column contains only those which correspond to the form RX₄, the second column those of the form RX₃, the third of the form RX₂, and the fourth of the form RX, so that the periodicity stands out clearly (see Column 16).

Column 5 contains the symbols of all the more or less well-known elements, placed according to the order of the magnitude of their atomic weights.

Column 6 contains the atomic weights of the elements according to the most trustworthy determinations. The names of the investigators are given in parenthesis. The atomic weight of oxygen, taken as 16, forms the basis upon which these atomic weights were calculated. Some of these have been recalculated by me on the basis of Stas's most trustworthy data (see Chapter XXIV. and the numbers given by Stas in the table, where they are taken according to van der Plaats and Thomsen's calculations).

Columns 7–14 contain the composition of the saline compounds of the elements, placed according to their forms, RX, RX₂ to RX₈ (in the 14^th column). If the element R has a metallic character like H, Li, Be, &c., then X represents Cl, NO₃, ½ SO₄, &c., haloid radicles, or (OH) if a perfect hydrate is formed (alkali, aqueous base), or ½ O, ½ S, &c. when an anhydrous oxide, sulphide, &c. is formed. For instance, NaCl, Mg(NO₃)₂, Al₂(SO₄)₃, correspond to NaX, MgX₂, and AlX₃; so also Na(OH), Mg(OH)₂, Al(OH)₃, Na₂O, MgO, Al₂O₃, &c. But if the element, like C or N, be of a metalloid or acid character, X must be regarded as (OH) in the formation of hydrates; (OM) in the formation of salts, where M is the equivalent of a metal, ½ O in the formation of an anhydride, and Cl in the formation of a chloranhydride; and in this case (i.e. in the acid compounds) Z is put in the place of X; for example, the formulæ COZ₂, NO₂Z, MNO₂Z, FeO₂Z₂, and IZ₃ correspond to CO(NaO)₂ = Na₂CO₃, COCl₂, CO₂, NO₂(NaO) = NaNO₃, NO₂Cl, NO₂(OH) = HNO₃; MnO₃(OK) = KMnO₄, ICl, &c.

The 15th column gives the compositions of the peroxides of the elements, taking them as anhydrous. An asterisk (*) is attached to those of which the composition has not been well established, and a dash (—) shows that for a given element no peroxides have yet been obtained. The peroxides contain more oxygen than the higher saline oxides of the same elements, are powerfully oxidising, and easily give peroxide of hydrogen. This latter circumstance necessitates their being referred to the type of peroxide of hydrogen, if bases and acids are referred to the type of water (see Chapter XV., Note 7 and 11 bis).

The 16th column gives the composition of the lower hydrogen compounds like N₃H and Na₂H. They may often be regarded as alloys of hydrogen, which is frequently disengaged by them at a comparatively moderate temperature. They differ greatly in their nature from the hydrogen compounds given in columns 1–4 (see Note 12).

Column 17 gives the specific gravity of the elements in a solid and a liquid state. An asterisk (*) is placed by those which can either only be assumed from analogy (for example, the sp. gr. of fluorine and hydrogen, which have not been obtained in a liquid state), or which vary very rapidly with a variation of temperature and pressure (like oxygen and nitrogen), or physical state (for instance, carbon in passing from the state of charcoal to graphite and diamond). But as the sp. gr. in general varies with the temperature, mechanical condition, &c., the figures given, although chosen from the most trustworthy sources, can only be regarded as approximate, and not as absolutely true. They clearly show a certain periodicity; for instance, the sp. gr. diminishes from Al on both sides (Al, Mg, Na, with decreasing atomic weight; and Al, Si, P, S, Cl, with increasing atomic weight, it also diminishes on both sides from Cu, Ru, and Os.)

The same remarks refer to the figures in the 18th column, which gives the so-called atomic volumes of the simple bodies, or the quotient of their atomic weight and specific gravity. For Na, K, Rb, and Cs the atomic volume is greatest among the neighbouring elements. For Ni, Pd, and Os it is least, and this indicates the periodicity of this property of the simple bodies.

The last (19th) column gives the melting points of the simple bodies. Here also a periodicity is seen, i.e. a maximum and minimum value between which there are intermediate values, as we see, for instance, in the series Cl, K, Ca, Sc, and Ti, or in the series Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, and Ge.

PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER XV

THE GROUPING OF THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC LAW

It is seen from the examples given in the preceding chapters that the sum of the data concerning the chemical transformations proper to the elements (for instance, with respect to the formation of acids, salts, and other compounds having definite properties) is insufficient for accurately determining the relationship of the elements, inasmuch as this may be many-sided. Thus, lithium and barium are in some respects analogous to sodium and potassium, and in others to magnesium and calcium. It is evident, therefore, that for a complete judgment it is necessary to have, not only qualitative, but also quantitative, exact and measurable, data. When a property can be measured it ceases to be vague, and becomes quantitative instead of merely qualitative.

Among these measurable properties of the elements, or of their corresponding compounds, are: (a) isomorphism, or the analogy of crystalline forms; and, connected with it, the power to form crystalline mixtures which are isomorphous; (b) the relation of the volumes of analogous compounds of the elements; (c) the composition of their saline compounds; and (d) the relation of the atomic weights of the elements. In this chapter we shall briefly consider these four aspects of the matter, which are exceedingly important for a natural and fruitful grouping of the elements, facilitating, not only a general acquaintance with them, but also their detailed study.

Historically the first, and an important and convincing, method for finding a relationship between the compounds of two different elements is by isomorphism. This conception was introduced into chemistry by Mitscherlich (in 1820), who demonstrated that the corresponding salts of arsenic acid, H₃AsO₄, and phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄, crystallise with an equal quantity of water, show an exceedingly close resemblance in crystalline form (as regards the angles of their faces and axes), and are able to crystallise together from solutions, forming crystals containing a mixture of the isomorphous compounds. Isomorphous substances are those which, with an equal number of atoms in their molecules, present an analogy in their chemical reactions, a close resemblance in their properties, and a similar or very nearly similar crystalline form: they often contain certain elements in common, from which it is to be concluded that the remaining elements (as in the preceding example of As and P) are analogous to each other. And inasmuch as crystalline forms are capable of exact measurement, the external form, or the relation of the molecules which causes their grouping into a crystalline form, is evidently as great a help in judging of the internal forces acting between the atoms as a comparison of reactions, vapour densities, and other like relations. We have already seen examples of this in the preceding pages.[1] It will be sufficient to call to mind that the compounds of the alkali metals with the halogens RX, in a crystalline form, all belong to the cubic system and crystallise in octahedra or cubes—for example, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, potassium iodide, rubidium chloride, &c. The nitrates of rubidium and cæsium appear in anhydrous crystals of the same form as potassium nitrate. The carbonates of the metals of the alkaline earths are isomorphous with calcium carbonate—that is, they either appear in forms like calc spar or in the rhombic system in crystals analogous to aragonite.[1 bis] Furthermore, sodium nitrate crystallises in rhombohedra, closely resembling the rhombohedra of calc spar (calcium carbonate), CaCO₃, whilst potassium nitrate appears in the same form as aragonite, CaCO₃, and the number of atoms in both kinds of salts is the same: they all contain one atom of a metal (K, Na, Ca), one atom of a non-metal (C, N), and three atoms of oxygen. The analogy of form evidently coincides with an analogy of atomic composition. But, as we have learnt from the previous description of these salts, there is not any close resemblance in their properties. It is evident that calcium carbonate approaches more nearly to magnesium carbonate than to sodium nitrate, although their crystalline forms are all equally alike. Isomorphous substances which are perfectly analogous to each other are not only characterised by a close resemblance of form (homeomorphism), but also by the faculty of entering into analogous reactions, which is not the case with RNO₃ and RCO₃. The most important and direct method of recognising perfect isomorphism—that is, the absolute analogy of two compounds—is given by that property of analogous compounds of separating from solutions in homogeneous crystals, containing the most varied proportions of the analogous substances which enter into their composition. These quantities do not seem to be in dependence on the molecular or atomic weights, and if they are governed by any laws they must be analogous to those which apply to indefinite chemical compounds.[2] This will be clear from the following examples. Potassium chloride and potassium nitrate are not isomorphous with each other, and are in an atomic sense composed in a different manner. If these salts be mixed in a solution and the solution be evaporated, independent crystals of the two salts will separate, each in that crystalline form which is proper to it. The crystals will not contain a mixture of the two salts. But if we mix the solutions of two isomorphous salts together, then, under certain circumstances, crystals will be obtained which contain both these substances. However, this cannot be taken as an absolute rule, for if we take a solution saturated at a high temperature with a mixture of potassium and sodium chlorides, then on evaporation sodium chloride only will separate, and on cooling only potassium chloride. The first will contain very little potassium chloride, and the latter very little sodium chloride.[3] But if we take, for example, a mixture of solutions of magnesium sulphate and zinc sulphate, they cannot be separated from each other by evaporating the mixture, notwithstanding the rather considerable difference in the solubility of these salts. Again, the isomorphous salts, magnesium carbonate, and calcium carbonate are found together—that is, in one crystal—in nature. The angle of the rhombohedron of these magnesia-lime spars is intermediate between the angles proper to the two spars individually (for calcium carbonate, the angle of the rhombohedron is 105° 8′; magnesium carbonate, 107° 30′; CaMg(CO₃)₂, 106° 10′). Certain of these isomorphous mixtures of calc and magnesia spars appear in well-formed crystals, and in this case there not unfrequently exists a simple molecular proportion of strictly definite chemical combination between the component salts—for instance, CaCO₃,MgCO₃—whilst in other cases, especially in the absence of distinct crystallisation (in dolomites), no such simple molecular proportion is observable: this is also the case in many artificially prepared isomorphous mixtures. The microscopical and crystallo-optical researches of Professor Inostrantzoff and others show that in many cases there is really a mechanical, although microscopically minute, juxtaposition in one whole of the heterogeneous crystals of calcium carbonate (double refracting) and of the compound CaMgC₂O₆. If we suppose the adjacent parts to be microscopically small (on the basis of the researches of Mallard, Weruboff, and others), we obtain an idea of isomorphous mixtures. A formula of the following kind is given to isomorphous mixtures: for instance, for spars, RCO₃, where R = Mg, Ca, and where it may be Fe,Mn …, &c. This means that the Ca is partially replaced by Mg or another metal. Alums form a common example of the separation of isomorphous mixtures from solutions. They are double sulphates (or seleniates) of alumina (or oxides isomorphous with it) and the alkalis, which crystallise in well-formed crystals. If aluminium sulphate be mixed with potassium sulphate, an alum separates, having the composition KAlS₂O₈,12H₂O. If sodium sulphate or ammonium sulphate, or rubidium (or thallium) sulphate be used, we obtain alums having the composition RAlS₂O₈,12H₂O. Not only do they all crystallise in the cubic system, but they also contain an equal atomic quantity of water of crystallisation (12H₂O). Besides which, if we mix solutions of the potassium and ammonium (NH₄AlS₂O₈,12H₂O) alums together, then the crystals which separate will contain various proportions of the alkalis taken, and separate crystals of the alums of one or the other kind will not be obtained, but each separate crystal will contain both potassium and ammonium. Nor is this all; if we take a crystal of a potassium alum and immerse it in a solution capable of yielding ammonia alum, the crystal of the potash alum will continue to grow and increase in size in this solution—that is, a layer of the ammonia or other alum will deposit itself upon the planes bounding the crystal of the potash alum. This is very distinctly seen if a colourless crystal of a common alum be immersed in a saturated violet solution of chrome alum, KCrS₂O₈,12H₂O, which then deposits itself in a violet layer over the colourless crystal of the alumina alum, as was observed even before Mitscherlich noticed it. If this crystal be then immersed in a solution of an alumina alum, a layer of this salt will form over the layer of chrome alum, so that one alum is able to incite the growth of the other. If the deposition proceed simultaneously, the resultant intermixture may be minute and inseparable, but its nature is understood from the preceding experiments; the attractive force of crystallisation of isomorphous substances is so nearly equal that the attractive power of an isomorphous substance induces a crystalline superstructure exactly the same as would be produced by the attractive force of like crystalline particles. From this it is evident that one isomorphous substance may induce the crystallisation[4] of another. Such a phenomenon explains, on the one hand, the aggregation of different isomorphous substances in one crystal, whilst, on the other hand, it serves as a most exact indication of the nearness both of the molecular composition of isomorphous substances and of those forces which are proper to the elements which distinguish the isomorphous substances. Thus, for example, ferrous sulphate or green vitriol crystallises in the monoclinic system and contains seven molecules of water, FeSO₄,7H₂O, whilst copper vitriol crystallises with five molecules of water in the triclinic system, CuSO₄,5H₂O; nevertheless, it may be easily proved that both salts are perfectly isomorphous; that they are able to appear in identically the same forms and with an equal molecular amount of water. For instance, Marignac, by evaporating a mixture of sulphuric acid and ferrous sulphate under the receiver of an air-pump, first obtained crystals of the hepta-hydrated salt, and then of the penta-hydrated salt FeSO₄,5H₂O, which were perfectly similar to the crystals of copper sulphate. Furthermore, Lecoq de Boisbaudran, by immersing crystals of FeSO₄,7H₂O in a supersaturated solution of copper sulphate, caused the latter to deposit in the same form as ferrous sulphate, in crystals of the monoclinic system, CuSO₄,7H₂O.

Hence it is evident that isomorphism—that is, the analogy of forms and the property of inducing crystallisation—may serve as a means for the discovery of analogies in molecular composition. We will take an example in order to render this clear. If, instead of aluminium sulphate, we add magnesium sulphate to potassium sulphate, then, on evaporating the solution, the double salt K₂MgS₂O₈,6H₂O (Chapter XIV., Note 28) separates instead of an alum, and the ratio of the component parts (in alums one atom of potassium per 2SO₄, and here two atoms) and the amount of water of crystallisation (in alums 12, and here 6 equivalents per 2SO₄) are quite different; nor is this double salt in any way isomorphous with the alums, nor capable of forming an isomorphous crystalline mixture with them, nor does the one salt provoke the crystallisation of the other. From this we must conclude that although alumina and magnesia, or aluminium and magnesium, resemble each other, they are not isomorphous, and that although they give partially similar double salts, these salts are not analogous to each other. And this is expressed in their chemical formulæ by the fact that the number of atoms in alumina or aluminium oxide, Al₂O₃, is different from the number in magnesia, MgO. Aluminium is trivalent and magnesium bivalent. Thus, having obtained a double salt from a given metal, it is possible to judge of the analogy of the given metal with aluminium or with magnesium, or of the absence of such an analogy, from the composition and form of this salt. Thus zinc, for example, does not form alums, but forms a double salt with potassium sulphate, which has a composition exactly like that of the corresponding salt of magnesium. It is often possible to distinguish the bivalent metals analogous to magnesium or calcium from the trivalent metals, like aluminium, by such a method. Furthermore, the specific heat and vapour density serve as guides. There are also indirect proofs. Thus iron gives ferrous compounds, FeX₂, which are isomorphous with the compounds of magnesium, and ferric compounds, FeX₃, which are isomorphous with the compounds of aluminium; in this instance the relative composition is directly determined by analysis, because, for a given amount of iron, FeCl₂ only contains two-thirds of the amount of chlorine which occurs in FeCl₃, and the composition of the corresponding oxygen compounds, i.e. of ferrous oxide, FeO, and ferric oxide, Fe₂O₃, clearly indicates the analogy of the ferrous oxide with MgO and of the ferric oxide with Al₂O₃.

Thus in the building up of similar molecules in crystalline forms we see one of the numerous means for judging of the internal world of molecules and atoms, and one of the weapons for conquests in the invisible world of molecular mechanics which forms the main object of physico-chemical knowledge. This method[5] has more than once been employed for discovering the analogy of elements and of their compounds; and as crystals are measurable, and the capacity to form crystalline mixtures can be experimentally verified, this method is a numerical and measurable one, and in no sense arbitrary.

The regularity and simplicity expressed by the exact laws of crystalline form repeat themselves in the aggregation of the atoms to form molecules. Here, as there, there are but few forms which are essentially different, and their apparent diversity reduces itself to a few fundamental differences of type. There the molecules aggregate themselves into crystalline forms; here, the atoms aggregate themselves into molecular forms or into the types of compounds. In both cases the fundamental crystalline or molecular forms are liable to variations, conjunctions, and combinations. If we know that potassium gives compounds of the fundamental type KX, where X is a univalent element (which combines with one atom of hydrogen, and is, according to the law of substitution, able to replace it), then we know the composition of its compounds: K₂O, KHO, KCl, NH₂K, KNO₃, K₂SO₄, KHSO₄, K₂Mg(SO₄)₂,6H₂O, &c. All the possible derivative crystalline forms are not known. So also all the atomic combinations are not known for every element. Thus in the case of potassium, KCH₃, K₃P, K₂Pt, and other like compounds which exist for hydrogen or chlorine, are unknown.

Only a few fundamental types exist for the building up of atoms into molecules, and the majority of them are already known to us. If X stand for a univalent element, and R for an element combined with it, then eight atomic types may be observed:—

RX, RX₂, RX₃, RX₄, RX₅, RX₆, RX₇, RX₈.

Let X be chlorine or hydrogen. Then as examples of the first type we have: H₂, Cl₂, HCl, KCl, NaCl, &c. The compounds of oxygen or calcium may serve as examples of the type RX₂: OH₂, OCl₂, OHCl, CaO, Ca(OH)₂, CaCl₂, &c. For the third type RX₃ we know the representative NH₃ and the corresponding compounds N₂O₃, NO(OH), NO(OK), PCl₃, P₂O₃, PH₃, SbH₃, Sb₂O₃, B₂O₃, BCl₃, Al₂O₃, &c. The type RX₄ is known among the hydrogen compounds. Marsh gas, CH₄, and its corresponding saturated hydrocarbons, C_nH_2n+2, are the best representatives. Also CH₃Cl, CCl₄, SiCl₄, SnCl₄, SnO₂, CO₂, SiO₂, and a whole series of other compounds come under this class. The type RX₅ is also already familiar to us, but there are no purely hydrogen compounds among its representatives. Sal-ammoniac, NH₄Cl, and the corresponding NH₄(OH), NO₂(OH), ClO₂(OK), as well as PCl₅, POCl₃, &c., are representatives of this type. In the higher types also there are no hydrogen compounds, but in the type RX₆ there is the chlorine compound WCl₆. However, there are many oxygen compounds, and among them SO₃ is the best known representative. To this class also belong SO₂(OH)₂, SO₂Cl₂, SO₂(OH)Cl, CrO₃, &c., all of an acid character. Of the higher types there are in general only oxygen and acid representatives. The type RX₇ we know in perchloric acid, ClO₃(OH), and potassium permanganate, MnO₃(OK), is also a member. The type RX₈ in a free state is very rare; osmic anhydride, OsO₄, is the best known representative of it.[6]

The four lower types RX, RX₂, RX₃, and RX₄ are met with in compounds of the elements R with chlorine and oxygen, and also in their compounds with hydrogen, whilst the four higher types only appear for such acid compounds as are formed by chlorine, oxygen, and similar elements.

Among the oxygen compounds the saline oxides which are capable of forming salts either through the function of a base or through the function of an acid anhydride attract the greatest interest in every respect. Certain elements, like calcium and magnesium, only give one saline oxide—for example, MgO, corresponding with the type MgX₂. But the majority of the elements appear in several such forms. Thus copper gives CuX and CuX₂, or Cu₂O and CuO. If an element R gives a higher type RX_n, then there often also exist, as if by symmetry, lower types, RX_n-2, RX_n-4, and in general such types as differ from RX_n by an even number of X. Thus in the case of sulphur the types SX₂, SX₄, and SX₆ are known—for example SH₂, SO₂, and SO₃. The last type is the highest, SX₆. The types SX₅ and SX₃ do not exist. But even and uneven types sometimes appear for one and the same element. Thus the types RX and RX₂ are known for copper and mercury.

Among the saline oxides only the eight types enumerated below are known to exist. They determine the possible formulæ of the compounds of the elements, if it be taken into consideration that an element which gives a certain type of combination may also give lower types. For this reason the rare type of the suboxides or quaternary oxides R₄O (for instance, Ag₄O, Ag₂Cl) is not characteristic; it is always accompanied by one of the higher grades of oxidation, and the compounds of this type are distinguished by their great chemical instability, and split up into an element and the higher compound (for instance, Ag₄O = 2Ag + Ag₂O). Many elements, moreover, form transition oxides whose composition is intermediate, which are able, like N₂O₄, to split up into the lower and higher oxides. Thus iron gives magnetic oxide, Fe₃O₄, which is in all respects (by its reactions) a compound of the suboxide FeO with the oxide Fe₂O₃. The independent and more or less stable saline compounds correspond with the following eight types :—