It need hardly be said that gold and diamonds are named under nineteenth century discoveries in relation to the newly-found fields which have yielded these highly-prized substances in remarkable abundance.

GOLD.

This precious metal is met with in nearly all parts of the world, and its splendid colour, high lustre, the ease with which it may be wrought, and its property of ever remaining untarnished, have caused it to be greatly esteemed for ornamental purposes from the earliest historical ages. No doubt the store set upon gold is derived from its suitability for decorative uses; and its comparative scarcity enhances the regard in which it is held. Its use, as a standard of value, is justified by the general estimation in which it is held, and by the fact that the amount of labour required to obtain the metal is on the whole tolerably uniform. It is one of the few metals which are found in nature in the uncombined state, but its separation from the materials with which it is associated requires the performance of a certain amount of work, in whatever form the metal may occur. Its general distribution is another advantage attending its selection as the standard of value. It occurs in England and Wales; in Spain, in France, in Hungary, in Piedmont, and in other parts of Europe; in various localities in Asia; in both divisions of the New World; in the remaining quarter of the globe, where it was obtained even in very ancient times, for South-East Africa was probably the locality to which a naval expedition was despatched by King Solomon—“they came to Ophir, and fetched from thence gold.” Australia also has, in the last half of our century, yielded much gold.

Gold is never met with in regular veins, but in primitive or igneous rocks, or in deposits formed by the disintegration of these. In Australia the metal is associated with quartz, in slate rocks geologically equivalent to the Cambrian formations of England and Wales; and in California it is also chiefly found in material which has been formed by the wearing down of quartz and granite rocks. Before the discoveries in California and Australia most of the gold in circulation was obtained from auriferous iron pyrites. The first finding of gold in California occurred in September, 1847, when a Mr. Marshall, the proprietor of a saw-mill on the Sacramento River, observed some glistening grains among the sand in his mill-race. The news soon spread, and the inhabitants of the town of San Francisco, then numbering about two hundred persons, were greatly excited thereby. When it became known that gold was really to be found, multitudes flocked to California, the population of San Francisco rapidly increased, and at the present day the city contains nearly a thousand times as many inhabitants as it did at the time gold was first discovered. The annual value of the metal found in California averaged about £23,000,000 for ten years after 1851; but this subsequently declined to less than half in 1872.

Sir Roderick Murchison, the distinguished geologist, pointed out the great probability of the existence of gold in Australia many years before the precious metal was actually found. It has, however, been stated that gold was met with in Australia so long ago as 1788. Considering the mode in which the metal occurs, it seems strange that the emigrants who occupied the auriferous districts as agriculturists did not long ago discover the riches which Nature had scattered over the surface of the soil. No doubt, their attention was too much devoted to their sheep and cattle to notice the glittering particles which might be seen in the water-courses, and it would probably never enter their minds that the eagerly desired metal could lie exposed to view on the surface of the land. But the announcement of the discoveries in California induced men to look at the soil more attentively, and in April, 1851, Mr. Hargreaves appears to have found at Bathurst the first gold met with in Australia. Four months afterwards the metal was also picked up at Ballarat, Victoria, and the gold-fields so discovered proved even richer than those of Sydney.

The effect of this discovery on the colony of Victoria proved marvellous. The population, which in 1851 was 77,000, had in 1867 become 660,000; in the same period the land under cultivation expanded from 57,000 acres to 631,000, and the value of property rose enormously when the grazier’s estimate of its worth was replaced by that of the miner. The authorities of the colony from the first regulated the mining operations by enactments defining the rights of the miners to the “claims,” as the allotments of land for working upon are termed; and thus disorder and lawlessness were almost unknown. Fig. 329 will give the reader a notion of the appearance of a miners’ settlement in the Australian gold-fields in the earlier period.

The fundamental rocks in the colony of Victoria belong to the oldest series of strata. They answer to the Silurian formation which exists in Cumberland, Wales, and Scotland. Although the strata of the rocks are much bent, and they have been worn down by the action of water, they are as a whole but little altered, consisting chiefly of sandstones and shales. These strata are interpenetrated by innumerable veins of quartz, which vary in thickness from 1
16 in. to 150 ft. It is in these quartz veins that the gold is seen in its original matrix. The metal is sometimes in the form of grains or flakes, or in moss-like threads, embedded in the quartz; sometimes in the form of well-defined crystals, sometimes in rough lumps or nuggets. Fig. 330 shows three of the various modes in which the gold is found disseminated through quartz. Overlying the more ancient rocks with their auriferous quartz veins are various rocks of different ages; and as these have been in part formed by the wearing down of the older rocks, they also are in general auriferous, and contain the gold in detached pieces, varying in size from particles of fine dust to the huge nugget, containing 2,280 oz., or nearly £10,000 worth of pure gold, which was found at Dunolly.

The soil, which has been formed by the disintegration of masses of auriferous quartz, is full of gold, so that a patch of such soil 12 ft. square has been known to yield 30 oz. of gold by a very rough kind of washing to the depth of 1 ft. Soil of this kind has been carried down by rivers and streams ages ago; and the lighter particles having been carried off by the water, while the gold, from its greater specific gravity, remained at the bottom of the stream, the sands and gravel of these river-beds are very rich in gold. In many instances the ancient water-courses have been entirely covered by igneous rocks, such as basalt, which have flowed over the land in a molten state. The gold-miner often finds his reward in burrowing beneath these basalts and lavas, following the bed of the ancient river, and recovering its long-buried treasures.

The methods of carrying on the gold-seeking operations vary according to the nature of the deposit which is worked and the resources of the miner. The simplest, which was that most practised in the early days of the gold-fields, consists in throwing into a tub several shovelsful of the surface soil, and in pouring in water while the contents of the tub are stirred about with a spade. The lighter matters are washed away, but the gold by its great specific gravity remains behind. An improvement in this, but still a very rude process, is practised by aid of the cradle, Fig. 331, which is merely the trunk of a tree, hollowed out, and provided with transverse partitions and ribs. The auriferous earth is thrown into the upper compartment, which is then filled with water. The cradle is rocked, so that the water may wash away all but the gold and the heavy stones. Any particles of the former which may be carried out of the head of the cradle will be stopped by the ribs which cross the lower part. Machines for puddling by horse-power are now in use, and other contrivances have superseded the tub and the cradle in surface-washing. The auriferous earth obtained by excavating the soil from pits is washed in a similar manner, as is also the material reached by penetrating the deeper tertiary deposits, and by driving adits or tunnels along the ancient river-beds beneath the layers of basalt.

A mode of washing accumulations of auriferous earths by streams of water is employed where circumstances are favourable. A long inclined channel is constructed, and lined with boards; or, when the natural inclination of the soil requires it, a long trough is constructed and supported on trestles. The trough is made of sawn boards, 1½ in. thick, in sections 12 ft. long, and it has a width of about 1 ft., the sides being from 8 in. to 2 ft. high. The inclination of the troughs is from 8 in. to 24 in. in 12 ft., and depends upon the abundance of the water: the more water, the steeper is the slope. The bottoms of the troughs are crossed by a number of transverse bars, which arrest the auriferous particles in their descent. The sluice, or series of troughs, may be from 50 ft. to several hundreds or even thousands of feet in length, and the cost from £100 to £8,000. The earth is thrown in at the upper part of the trough, and it is gradually washed down, the water being allowed to flow in some cases by night as well as by day, but commonly in the day-time only, as the troughs must be watched, to see that they do not become choked up, and the soil washed out by the overflowing water. The run goes on for six or ten days, and then the current is stopped for a cleaning-up, which occupies from half a day to a day. For this operation the stream of water is stopped, and quicksilver is used to dissolve the grains of gold from the sand, &c., collected by the riffle-bars. The quicksilver is afterwards expelled from the amalgam by heat, and the gold remains as a porous mass.

Sometimes, instead of shovelling the earth into the troughs, it can be washed out of its position into suitable channels by means of a powerful jet of water. This mode of working, which is termed hydraulic jet sluicing, offers great advantages where the natural conditions admit of its adoption. In this plan, instead of bringing the auriferous earth to the water, the water is brought to the earth by a flexible pipe, like the hose of a fire-engine, from a reservoir about 200 ft. higher, and the stream is directed upon the material by a nozzle. This powerful jet of water is used to separate and carry away the earth to the head of a system of channels and troughs, like those already described. The hose has a diameter of 8 in., but the orifice of the nozzle from which the water issues is contracted, in order to increase the force of the jet. The hydraulic jet sluicing requires from three to six men to work it, and the material of a hill can be carried into the sluices in less time than a hundred persons could do it by spades. Immense quantities of earth are removed in this way, and fatal accidents are not infrequent from the falling masses burying the men who carry the pipe. The force of the jet of water itself is another source of danger, for broken limbs and even fatal injuries have often been caused by it. The number of accidental deaths occurring in hydraulic jet sluicing operations in the colony of Victoria is reported to average about 60 in a year. Material which has been worked before often yields a considerable amount of gold when the operations are repeated; and in localities favourable to the hydraulic jet system, the work can be carried on with little labour. In this way three men have been known to extract in one week from dirt washed for the third time, gold of the value of £330.

The gold which is embedded in quartz and other minerals, as shown in Fig. 330, is obtained by crushing the material in stamping machines, which are usually constructed with logs of wood shod with iron. In another form of crushing-mill two large cast-iron rollers are used instead of stampers. From the crushed material the particles of gold are extracted by amalgamation with mercury, which is afterwards removed by distillation.

The richness of the Victoria gold-fields may be inferred from the fact that, up to the year 1868, 36,835,692 oz. had been obtained, the value of which is no less than £147,342,767. The total value of the gold then annually obtained throughout the whole world is estimated at about 20 millions of pounds sterling. When gold was found so plentifully in California and Australia, it was supposed by some that its value as a monetary standard would be affected. This has not happened, although the prices obtained for the metal by its producers were considerably lower in the last decade of the century than about 1867. The total annual output of gold throughout the world is of course variable, and no doubt there are also variations in the demand; but, so far, the fluctuations have been relatively small, and there has been no such depreciation by excess of production as in the case of silver. Yet the increased production of gold after the discoveries made about the middle of the century was beyond precedent. It has been estimated that between 1850 and 1875 the total value amounted to £600,000,000, showing an annual average twelve times greater than that for the period between 1700 and 1850. Between 1875 and 1890 there was a falling off in the supply, the annual average becoming only £20,000,000 in value. But since the last-named date there has been a rise year by year, and at the close of the century the value of the gold produced throughout the world in one year may not be less than £40,000,000.

As already remarked, the distribution of gold is world-wide; and it has happened in recent times, that just as one source of supply has shown signs of failure, other fields have been discovered and have attracted thousands of eager seekers to new regions. So, when the Californian supply was falling off, there came the rush to Australia, where easily worked alluvial deposits or rich veins continued for years to reward the toil of the gold-finder, though in an ever-lessening degree, until in 1886 or 1887 the centre of attraction was shifted. But at a later period fresh discoveries in Australia again raised the productiveness of that quarter; and still more recently, the announcement of the existence of much auriferous deposit in the valley of the Yukon River (Klondyke), and in various localities of British Columbia, drew thousands to desolate and undeveloped districts, in spite of the extremities of hardship and destitution that might be endured.

The discovery of 1886 takes us to South Africa, a region with which also our next section is mainly concerned, and the scene of an activity unprecedented in the annals of gold-mining. From circumstances immediately connected with our present subject, the close of our century finds public attention intensely occupied with affairs at the austral extremity of the “dark continent.” The history of South Africa, from the time when, in 1486, the tempest-driven Portuguese mariner, Bartholomew Diaz, first struck its shores at the promontory he named the “Cape of Storms” (Cabo Tormentoso), and when, eleven years afterwards, the celebrated Vasco de Gama sailed round it on his memorable voyage to India, is one which, in many respects, presents features of peculiar interest. It is not our province to enter into details of these, but it may be stated that the “Cape of Good Hope”—the more auspicious designation which the King of Portugal substituted for that of Diaz—was, towards the end of the seventeenth century, colonized by Dutch and some French settlers, and afterwards Table Bay became a regular port of call for Dutch, English, and other ships trading to India. The Cape was taken possession of by the British in 1795, but restored to the Dutch in 1803, only to be three years after (1806) resumed by England, under whose rule “Cape Colony” has since remained. The abolition of slavery in all British dominions, enacted in 1833, was the occasion of great dissatisfaction to the descendants of the Dutch settlers, who inhabited isolated farmsteads, their possessions consisting chiefly of great herds of cattle, tended by slaves. These people, or at least the majority of them, resolved to quit the confines of British territory, and seek fresh fields and pastures new in unoccupied regions north of the Orange River, so that from 1835 to 1838 there was a continued “exodus of the emigrant farmers.” The story of the following years, with its exciting events and the vacillating policy of successive British Governments, must be perused elsewhere: suffice it to say here, that the settlements of the “emigrant farmers” had by 1854 established themselves into two separate States, nominally recognising Great Britain as the “paramount power,” but practically independent of it; for, at the last-named date, the autonomy of “The Orange River Free State” was acknowledged, and two years before that another section of the Boers, i.e. of the “emigrant farmers,” who had settled beyond the Vaal River, was absolved from British allegiance, and, restricted only by a claim of certain suzerain powers, was constituted into “The South African Republic,” of which the precise boundaries were at length determined by the “Convention of London” in 1884. This territory is usually called for shortness the Transvaal, and here in 1854 the existence of gold was first announced; but the Boer authorities at once prohibited further prospecting, fearing, and perhaps with reason, that the winning of the precious metal within their bounds might disturb their pastoral quietude. The Boer character has been the unique product of a race withdrawn for two centuries from contact with European and civilized culture, living in widely separated dwellings with scarcely other associations than cattle and enslaved blacks. The Boer is described as of a type which draws away from the enterprising man of modern times towards the primitive patriarch centred in his flocks and herds: he hates innovations, and greatly distrusts strangers; he would rather keep, in a box under his bed, any money he may possess than employ it, or his own energies, in developing the immense mineral resources of his territory, in which are included not only gold, but copper, silver, lead, iron, and abundance of coal.

After some years the prohibition against the exploitation of gold in the Transvaal was withdrawn, and several localities in the Republic subsequently became small capitals of gold-mining industry. The most notable were Leydenburg and Barberton, at which latter place as many as 10,000 gold-seekers were congregated when the discovery of 1886 drew most of them away. These communities were formed almost entirely by the influx of people from beyond the Boer boundaries, mainly, of course, English-speaking people from the Cape Colony, Australia, America, etc. Their operations were hampered by the Transvaal legislation, and impeded by the absence of adequate means of communication, which was a characteristic feature of the Boers’ unprogressiveness; nevertheless, gold-mining has been pursued in some of these localities ever since, though with varying fortune. What drew nearly all the gold-seekers of the Transvaal and of adjoining regions at once to the north side of the Vaal River was the discovery there of real gold mines. This was at a district within the Transvaal territory, named Witwatersrandt (= White-waters-ridge), the designation which has been reduced by abbreviation or affection to “The Randt”—or, anglice, the Rand.

It is singular that although the Randt district had been explored by expert prospectors between 1877 and 1891, the outcrops of the auriferous reefs entirely escaped their notice. But when the first hint of the existence of these deposits was bruited abroad, it was the Kimberley men who were foremost in surveying the spot. By the Kimberley men we mean those who so soon had by lucky chance lighted in 1870 upon the rich and apparently inexhaustible diamond mines, as related in our next section. By the time of the announcement of gold-finds on the north side of the Vaal River many of these men had become rich—very rich indeed. If they had been so disposed they might then have returned to their native countries with enviable fortunes, but it was just as the affairs of their diamond companies had been settled by consolidation on a satisfactory basis, and the spirit of discovery and adventure was still strong upon them, that they resolved personally to explore the new El Dorado. To a wild desolate region they proceeded, enduring there and on the track thither the like discomforts they had experienced in their earlier quest. But they took with them experts provided with all appliances for ascertaining the prospective value of the alleged discovery, and, when convinced of its reality, they purchased from the Boer possessors their land at the price demanded, and it was not long before they had chemists and engineers at work, having, at the cost of making their own roads, had brought to the spot the necessary machinery and appliances. The usual influx of workers, builders, speculators, etc., followed, and in a wonderfully short space of time a town sprang up where in 1886 there had been only a single poor farm. The town grew rapidly to the dimensions of a city inhabited by 150,000 people. Its name is Johannesburg.

In his book on South Africa, the late Lord Randolph Churchill, describing Johannesburg in 1891, says that it has much of the appearance of an English manufacturing town, but without noise, smoke, or dirt. “The streets are crowded with a busy, bustling, active, keen, intelligent-looking throng. There are gathered together human beings from every quarter of the globe, the English possessing an immense predominance. The buildings and general architecture of the town attain an excellent standard, style having been consulted and sought after, stone and bricks the materials, corrugated iron being confined to the roofs, solidity, permanence, and progress being the general characteristics.”

The Randt mines having drawn into the South African Republic great numbers of enterprising workers, who have acquired wealth and built cities, it would have been expected that they would have been permitted to acquire the ordinary rights of citizenship. The Boers’ character, however, has been manifested by their refusal of such rights, and by their exacting grievous imposts from these Uitlanders (Out-landers, or strangers), who, being for the most part of English race, are finding the injustice too hard to be borne, and greatly strained relations between the Transvaal and Great Britain have again supervened. Indeed, the situation has become so serious that it is feared actual war may result, and that is why, in almost the last year of our century, people are looking anxiously at the position of affairs in South Africa.

The geological conditions of the Randt are these: the upper series of beds in the Karoo formation, which extends over the greater part of South Africa, consist of quartzose strata, and in the district in question these are much broken, faulted, and variously inclined. They are interstratified with beds of sandstone and with the layers of gold-bearing conglomerate, of which last there are several parallel to one another and not far separated, ranging in their several thicknesses from 6 inches to 6 feet, the thickest being known as the main reef. These reefs form an oval basin,—that is, they dip with varying angle towards a centre, and crop out at their up-turned edges. Johannesburg is situated nearly 6,000 feet above the sea-level, on an elevated ridge, along which for 30 miles east, and nearly the same westwards, the northern outcrop extends, curving towards the south, while the southern edge of the basin appears in the Orange Free State, where it has been traced for a distance of 130 miles. There a shaft, sunk to the great depth of 2,400 feet, found the main reef with undiminished richness. The outcrop of the reefs stretches east and west for 130 miles, and the distance between north and south is 30 miles. From such data it has been inferred that the reefs contain altogether not less than 450 million pounds worth of gold. The conglomerate of these reefs consists of rounded quartz pebbles (which contain no gold), and pieces of sandstone and of argillaceous material, the whole cemented together into a very hard mass by iron pyrites. This last is the matrix in which the gold exists, in the form, for the most part, of minute scarcely visible crystals. To a depth of from 50 to 150 feet, air and moisture have acted on the pyritic matter, and the material of the reef becoming in consequence easily disintegrated, has yielded by mere mechanical treatment most of its gold, whereas by the same operations on the underlying hard, tough conglomerate, only about half its gold could be obtained. Hence, after breaking up the ore, the pyritic matter is sorted out and transported to the stamp battery, reduced to powder, from which about five-eighths of the contained gold is removed by quicksilver. The residue is concentrated by washing in a special machine called the “Frue vanner,” and the concentrates, after roasting in order to oxidize base metals, are subjected to the action of chlorine gas, by which the gold is converted into a soluble chloride, from the solution of which it is precipitated by ferrous sulphate. The tailings, slimes, and other residues are further acted on by a solution of potassium cyanide, which dissolves the minute remaining particles of gold, and from the solution the metal is obtained by electrolysis. By these supplementary chemical processes the total of the gold recovered from the ore is raised to 90 per cent. or more of all that chemical analysis shows to exist.

When it is said that the reefs are arranged in a basin-like form, it must be understood that this applies to their general disposition, for the regularity of geometrical shape does not belong to geological basins. There are considerable variations in the inclinations of the reefs: at some places they are nearly vertical, but generally they dip towards the centre at various angles, a slope between 25° and 45° being quite usual; and the inclination becomes less and less the deeper they go, so that it is presumed that the beds are level towards the centre of the basin. In the Randt the vertical shaft is rather the exception, the entrance to the mine usually following the inclination of the reefs, and the trucks of ore are drawn up sloping rails. From the inclined adits horizontal galleries are excavated right and left at various depths by which the main reef is worked, and there are cross cuts by which the reefs to the north and south may be reached. The most active district of the Randt is that which extends eastward of Johannesburg, where a long succession of tall chimneys and winding headgears together with the other appurtenances are visible. But there is nothing of a picturesque character about a gold mine, more than is presented by the aspect of an ordinary colliery.

The importance of the Randt gold-fields does not consist in the actual richness of the crude material, which indeed in places here and there cannot be profitably worked,—in mining parlance, it is not “pay ore.” It is rather the great ascertained extent of these gold-bearing beds and the general persistence of their character throughout that give to the Randt its unique character amongst metalliferous workings. This contrasts with the comparative uncertainty attending the exploitation of auriferous quartz veins, which occur in detached unconnected patches, that often end suddenly where least expected. There are in the Randt nearly one hundred companies working mines, and of these there are many that pay very handsome dividends on their original capital. A few pay 100 per cent., while a considerable number distribute 25 per cent. and upwards; so that some of these Gold Companies are amongst the richest and most influential financial houses in the world. The Randt is second only to the United States in the quantity it adds annually to the world’s production.

DIAMONDS.

In ancient times, and down to a comparatively late period, the only region from which were derived all the diamonds that found their way to Europe, was India, where Golconda was long celebrated for the productive mines in its neighbourhood, and for the high estimation in which fine specimens of their yield were held. In the seventeenth century these mines employed 60,000 persons, it is said; and in other districts of India diamond-seeking has also been carried on from time immemorial. A gradual decrease in the finds of Indian diamonds has long been observed, and the supremacy the East had so long enjoyed as the purveyor of gems was in the earlier part of the eighteenth century transferred to another hemisphere. In 1727 the diamond was first discovered in Brazil; or rather, we might say, was then first discerned there. For the gold-seekers in washing the sands of certain Brazilian rivers had found numberless specimens which they either threw aside as worthless, or, seeing them prettier pebbles than the rest, used them as counters in their card games; their true nature was not recognized, because the rough diamond has by no means the attractive appearance of the cut and polished brilliant flashing with refractive radiance. It must have been these last, and not diamonds in their natural state, that presented themselves to the imagination of the poet when he penned the line—

The announcement of some diamonds having been found in America had no effect on the prices in the Indian market, but the exports that soon after came from Brazil in great abundance quite changed the conditions of the trade, for in the first fifty years their value was estimated at no less than £12,000,000 sterling. As already stated, the presence of diamonds in Brazil was not recognized until 1727, and then by the accident of one Lobo, an inhabitant of the gold district of Minas Geräes, who had been in India and had seen rough diamonds there, observing the resemblance; he took some of the Brazilian stones to Lisbon, where their identity with the products of the Indian mines was established. But the European dealers, alarmed lest this discovery should depreciate the value of their stocks of Indian gems, spread a report that the so-called diamonds from Brazil were but the refuse of the Indian mines that had been sent to Brazil. This had the effect of stopping for a time the sale of the Brazilian diamonds; but the traders in these were not above taking a hint from their rivals—fas est et ab hoste doceri—for they carried their diamonds to Bengal, and there sold them as Indian stones at Indian prices. For nearly one hundred and forty years after this Brazil was by far the most productive diamond region in the whole world, and especially after 1754, when diamond-seekers congregated by thousands in the very rich fields of Bahia, a district of Brazil. Nor have the places above mentioned been by any means the only localities in Brazil where diamond-finders have been at work; but the production has decreased and has lost its relative importance by the South African discoveries that about 1870 caused an entire change in the diamond industry, and the high prices of the Brazilian gems no longer capable of being maintained, the fall in value has rendered the workings less remunerative than formerly. We may now pass over with mere mention, discoveries of diamondiferous districts in North America, Australia, and elsewhere.

While rejecting as entirely inapplicable and inexcusable by any stretch of poetic licence the epithet flaming for the diamond mine, we must question whether the word mine, that as the customary word we have continued to use, does not convey an equally false notion of the nature of the workings to which hitherto reference has been made. For these in most cases are nothing more than holes, very much like gravel pits in the side of a hill. The diamonds which have so far been in question are usually found among alluvial sands or gravels, the water-worn fragments of disintegrated rocks. These are in many cases carried down by rivers, and the diamonds under such circumstances are very frequently accompanied by gold; indeed, it is the search for gold that has in many cases led to their discovery. In the dry season of the year, which extends from April to October, the lessened currents of certain of the Brazilian streams are diverted from their course into canals, so as to leave dry the bed of the stream, and here the mud is dug out to the depth of six or eight feet or more, and transported near the washing huts, these operations being continued throughout the dry season. When this is over the digging is necessarily interrupted by great volumes of water that fill the rivers and streams, and the diamond-seekers devote their attention to washing the mud that has been collected. About one cwt. of this is placed in a long trough, and water is made to flow in, while the negro labourer stirs up the mass with his hands, until the water runs off clear, all the particles of mud having been washed away. The residual gravel is then very carefully examined, stone by stone, and any diamonds found are handed to the overseer, who watches all proceedings from an elevated seat. These Brazilian diamonds are mostly of a small size: occasionally, but very rarely, stones of quite exceptional value are found, but perhaps not one in 10,000. Formerly when in the Brazilian fields a negro slave found one of 18 carats, or more (18 carats = 72 grains), he not only obtained his freedom, but was rewarded with gifts, and for the finding of smaller stones commensurate rewards were given. The value of a diamond of the larger sizes depends upon so many adventitious circumstances that it would not be easy for any one to state the money’s worth of an 18–carat stone, but, considering too that the price increases in a more rapid ratio than the weight, we may to some extent draw an inference from the published values in 1867 of smaller Brazilian brilliants, perfectly white, pure, and flawless, when one of 5 carats (20 grains) in weight was priced at £350. As the rough diamond gives a brilliant of only half its weight, we may from the above assume an 18–carat stone to be worth in its finished state at least £1,000.

It may well be asked what are the qualities possessed by the diamond which have caused it to be so highly valued as an adornment all the world over; and here it will be proper to invite the reader’s attention to the chemical as well as to the physical character of the diamond. The most obvious and attractive quality of the cut brilliant is its unsurpassable lustre, which is due to its high refractive power. In a section of our article on light the subject of refraction has been dealt with, and an explanation given of the index of refraction. That of the diamond is the highest known, being 2·50 to 2·75; other precious stones have indices ranging from 1·58 to 1·78; those of glass and of quartz are between 1·50 and 1·57. It follows from the known laws of refraction that the limiting or critical angle is less for diamond than for other substances, as, for example, glass, for the posterior surface of a diamond will totally reflect all the light that falls upon it at any angle with the normal greater than 24°; glass will totally reflect only when the incidence is greater than about 42°: hence the diamond reflects from its farther surface about 64 per cent. of rays that glass similarly situated would allow to pass outwards without reflection.

Another property in which the diamond excels all other substances is hardness. It is the hardest substance in nature; for a diamond will scratch every other, but by none can it be scratched, except by another diamond. Not but that by the application of a file the edges of a diamond or brilliant may be notched and broken; but this would be through sheer mechanical force tearing the substance, and would be a test of brittleness, not of hardness. These two properties have not unfrequently been confounded, as when it was foolishly prescribed as a test for the genuineness of a diamond, that it should be placed on an anvil and struck with a hammer. No doubt many good and valuable stones have been sacrificed by this ignorant treatment. The hardness of the diamond does not prevent its being reducible to powder when so required. Again, diamonds are sometimes in such a condition of internal strain that very slight shocks are sufficient to cause them to separate into fragments. We read of diamonds that are suspected to be in this condition being packed for transmission within raw potatoes. The extreme hardness of the diamond secures it from all those accidental abrasions and injuries to which softer materials are liable, so that it does not deteriorate by age or use. It is unaffected also by any chemical substances.

In chemical composition the diamond is pure carbon, one of the most commonly diffused of the elementary bodies, as it enters into the constitution of the atmosphere, of all organic bodies, and of a vast number of mineral substances. Carbon in a less pure form also occurs naturally as graphite, plumbago or black lead, and in other conditions comes into ordinary use as already explained in our article on Iron. It was only towards the end of the eighteenth century that the composition of the diamond was demonstrated by the celebrated French chemist, Lavoisier, who actually burnt a diamond in oxygen gas, and found the resulting product to be carbonic acid gas, identical with that obtained by similarly burning a piece of charcoal. Soon afterwards another French chemist, Clouet, confirmed Lavoisier’s conclusion by producing steel from pure iron and diamond heated together, an experiment of much significance when considered in the light of the remarkable relation between these substances, which is one of the latest discoveries of our century. It should be observed that Clouet’s result implies a fusion of the diamond as well as of the iron in the act of entering into chemical combination.

Like nearly every solid substance of definite chemical composition, this pure carbon takes the crystalline form. The phenomena of crystallization are of the highest interest and beauty, for in them we see shapeless matter fashioning itself into definite and often perfect geometrical solids, as if it had been wrought by the hand of some mathematical artist. Every substance forms crystals of some one shape when the conditions are identical, and one essential condition for any crystallization is that the particles should be capable of free movement in arranging themselves, and this condition can occur only when the substance is in the state of liquid or of gas. Crystals are commonly deposited from solutions when the solvent evaporates or is cooled down; or they are formed when a fused substance solidifies. In either case the crystals are the larger and more perfect as they are allowed the greater time to form. Now, carbon in any of its conditions has been found to be absolutely infusible and insoluble, and therefore the origin of the diamond has long been a puzzle to scientific men, very diverse surmises having been propounded on this subject. Some have thought it was separated from carbonic acid by the action of heat, or of electricity; others, that the carbon had been gasified by subterranean heat; others, among whom were Newton and the German chemist, Liebig, believed that heat had nothing to do with it, but that the crystals slowly separated from vegetable matters (hydro-carbons) in the process of decomposition under some unknown conditions; others, that the diamond crystallized out from liquid carbonic acid, holding under pressure some unknown form of carbon in solution; others, that carbon was ejected by volcanic action in a fused state; and so on. We hope to show that the problem has at length been solved, and how.

The shapes of the natural crystals of the diamond must not be confounded with those of the cut brilliants. The most frequently met with of the former is the octahedron, or eight-sided figure, such as would result from two square pyramids joined base to base, the triangles forming the sides of the pyramids being of such a height that the three pairs of opposite points are equidistant one from another, so that the octahedron enclosed in a cube would have an apex in the middle of each surface of the cube. There are other shapes of diamond crystals, but they are all related to the cube, that is, they are all obtainable from the cube by successively slicing off edges and angles. The natural diamond sometimes has as many as 48 faces formed by such a process. This will easily be understood by the reader if he will take a cube of common soap and perform on it these operations gradually with a sharp knife, taking care always to make the new faces he produces equally inclined to the adjoining ones. He may begin by cutting off a tiny piece from one corner of the cube, forming a small equilateral triangle; then let him do the same at two opposite corners, and again at all the eight corners. Then he should make the cuts larger and larger, always producing equal sized equilateral triangles so long as these can be formed. In every case he will have shaped out such forms as belong to diamond crystals. Instead of this, he may pare off one or more edges of the cube, or he may in various ways combine the two operations, and he will probably be surprised at the variety of forms producible in this manner, all derived from the original cube and all representing possible forms of natural diamonds, and indeed those of any substance that crystallizes in the cubical system. A model of the diamond octahedron can be readily made from the description already given, and the whole series of operations will constitute an elementary but very instructive lesson in the science of crystallography.

Diamonds are liable to occur with every imaginable distortion, so as to be scarcely recognizable by their external form. A very pure smooth uncut diamond, belonging to the Rajah of Mattam in Borneo, is shaped exactly like a pear, two inches in length. By the way, battles have been fought for the possession of this gem, and it is said that,£200,000 was vainly offered for it. The diamond, notwithstanding its hardness, splits with comparative ease in certain planes, and by such cleavage (a property common to all crystals) the octahedral form commonly emerges. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth century that the art of cutting the diamond into regular facets was practised, and this can be done only by the aid of diamond powder, prepared by crushing fragments and faulty stones in a hard steel mortar. The first operation is to split the stone by its natural cleavage, and the rough facets so produced of two diamonds are ground together until they are quite smooth. The grinding of other facets and the polishing are effected on horizontal discs of steel making 2,000 revolutions per minute, and overspread with diamond powder mixed with olive oil.

The external surface of the diamond in its natural state is often very rough, the stone being always coated with a more or less opaque crust, so that its translucent interior is concealed or veiled; but when the reflection from its inner surfaces pierces this veil it glows as if lighted from within, giving that peculiar appearance which is called its “fire.” The surfaces of the diamond crystals are very often curved instead of being flat, and the dodecahedral shape, when this is the case, takes on an almost globular appearance. Diamonds of all colours are found, as well as the highly esteemed colourless stones. Yellow ones of various tints are frequent,—orange, brown, and pink are not very rare; but red, green, blue, and black are almost unique, at least in a condition to form large and perfect gems, and are accordingly much prized. The black diamonds found in Borneo are so hard that ordinary diamond powder has no effect whatever upon them; they have to be manipulated with their own dust. The nature of the substances that impart these colours to the diamond has never been made out; they must be excessively small in quantity. When a diamond is burnt in air or in oxygen gas by aid of a large burning glass or otherwise, an extremely minute quantity of ash remains, and this often retains the shape of the stone, in the form of a most delicate network; and of the composition of the ash, this much has been made out: it contains silica and iron. We shall find that the presence of the last named element, although but in the merest trace, is not without significance.

The purely utilitarian uses of the diamond are few, but of importance. The most familiar is in the glazier’s tool for cutting glass, and in connection with this we may mention a fact not generally known, namely, that though any point of a diamond will scratch glass, it is only by a natural point of the crystal, and that point of a certain shape, that glass can be cut. Another kind of diamond, valueless as a gem, has been turned to good account in Major Beaumont’s invention, described in our section on Rock Drilling Machines, to which the reader is referred. Minute diamonds are employed for writing on glass, for very fine engraving, etc.

Having now said sufficient about diamonds in general to give the reader an interest in the subject, and yet but little more than was needed to impart the information necessary for following the further development of the theme, we approach the discoveries in this connection which have specially distinguished our century. We must transfer the reader’s attention to South Africa, and if he can refer to any recent map of that region, particularly to one showing its physical features, it will be of advantage.

In 1867 some children, playing near the banks of the Orange River, found what they thought to be merely a pebble prettier than the rest. A neighbour seeing the stone in the children’s possession, obtained it from their mother for a trifle. It passed through several hands, and was bought at last by the Governor of the colony for £500. The discovery shortly afterwards of other diamonds in the same locality attracted numbers of persons to the district, and especially to the banks of the Vaal River, which speedily became the scene of a great search for diamonds. Though this search was confined to merely the surface of the soil, it was attended with considerable success, and many fine diamonds rewarded the diligence of the eager seekers. One of the most remarkable stones for its great size, which equalled that of a walnut, was discovered by a Kaffir. When this gem had finally reached the hands of Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, of London, its value was estimated at no less than £25,000. News of these discoveries having spread, a rush set in for the diamond-fields of the Vaal River, and the banks of this stream soon presented an animated spectacle. Europeans flocked to the spot, London jewellers sent agents, and the inevitable Jews appeared on the scene to purchase the precious gems from the lucky finders. It turned out that many of the larger stones had a slightly yellow tinge, varying in different specimens from the palest straw to a decided amber colour, and, as this detracted greatly from their value, no little disappointment and loss were sometimes experienced when the gems came to be sold in London and Paris.

One of the first settlements which sprang up on the banks of the Vaal River was a place called Pniel, of which the reader may form some idea from Fig. 332, which is copied from a sketch actually taken from the windows of Jardine’s Hotel. It was then only a little straggling village, chiefly of wooden sheds or corrugated iron erections, with but two or three more substantial structures. The diamonds which were found in this neighbourhood were obtained from gravel which lay on the slopes of the hills rising from the river. The mode of conducting the search for diamonds in these gravels was simple enough. The first operation was the washing of the material, in order to remove sand and dirt, and this process was usually performed at the margin of the river, where the gravel was brought down in carts and deposited in a suitable place, at which a cradle was erected. The cradle was simply a strong wooden framing sustaining sieves of wirework or perforated metal, placed one above the other, those at the top having the largest meshes, so that the lowest would only permit sand or very small pebbles to pass through. The cradle was capable of receiving a rocking movement, and while the gravel was thus sorted, water was freely poured on the uppermost layer, so that the stuff was in a short time thoroughly cleansed and sorted. When this had been accomplished, the gravel was thrown in successive lots on a table, at which the digger sat and rapidly examined it for diamonds by help of a flat piece of wood or iron (see Fig. 328). The larger gems were readily detected, and indeed could be picked out from among the pebbles on the sieve before the stuff was thrown on the sorting-table. Crystals of quartz, which sometimes glisten among the mass, often excited groundless delight in the bosom of the inexperienced worker.